Across India Part 12

"I mention one as a specimen, the Kolarian language, spoken by those who first settled in the hilly regions of the central part. The others are the Aryan, Dravidian, and Tibeto-Burman, all of which you will find in 'Chambers's' in your library.

"The word Hindu is generally used in a very broad sense to cover all the native population of Hindustan or India; but it is really applicable to a religion, and belongs only to those of the Hindu, or the faith of the Brahmins; but, like most others, it consists of a great number of sects. Of this belief there are about 200,000,000 people. They are divided into four grand cla.s.ses, called castes. The Portuguese called them _casta_ in their own language, from which the present name comes. I call them grand cla.s.ses, or castes, because they are divided into many sub-cla.s.ses.

"When the Aryans, who came from Europe, and Asia farther north than India, obtained a foothold here, and established themselves, they looked down upon other people in the land, and called themselves the twice-born, or born again, as some modern sects have it. They claimed to have experienced a second, or religious, birth, indicated by a certain cord with which they were invested at a particular age. The natives of the soil and all other outsiders were the once-born.

"In the lapse of time the twice-born were divided into three cla.s.ses, the Brahmins being the priestly cla.s.s, the Kshatriyas the ruling military, and the Vaisyas the agricultural cla.s.ses. These were of the upper grade; and all the once-born were called Sudras. These four cla.s.ses are the origin of caste, though the divisions have been greatly changed. The Vedas are the four oldest sacred books of the Hindus, otherwise the Hindu Scriptures.

"Derived from their holy books is the allegorical idea that the Brahmin, or priest, was the mouth of the original man; the warrior his arms; the agriculturist his thighs; while the Sudra, or common people, sprang out of his feet. The duties and relations of the four castes are defined and stated in the laws of Manu."

"We have not been introduced to him," suggested Mrs. Woolridge.

"He is regarded as the author of the most noted law-book among the Hindus; but there is so much that is mythical and contradictory said of him, that I will say nothing more about him; but he is authority among the Brahmins. In modern caste the Brahmin is the minister of religion; he alone mediates between G.o.d and man, makes sacrifices, and teaches the sacred Veda. His life is portioned off into periods of special duty. As a student he learns the Veda; then he gets married, becomes a householder, and must every day perform the appointed sacrifice. Some of them live in the woods, as hermits, or live like monks, till they are said to be absorbed into Brahma.

"The soldier's sphere is in connection with the State, to support the Brahmin, and execute the laws he makes or interprets. The third cla.s.s cultivate the soil as proprietors, and engage in trade and commerce. The Sudra is the servant of all the others. Resulting from the intermarriage of members of different castes there are various mixed cla.s.ses. The lowest is the child of a Brahmin mother and a Sudra father, though in Southern India the Pariah is still lower.

"Of the vast population of India, three-fourths are Hindus in religion. The Buddhists are mostly in Burma, and there are over 57,000,000 Mohammedans.

The number of Christians by the last census was 2,284,380; and I am sorry there are no more of them. The Sikhs and the Jains are Indian sects which flourish in certain localities; as there are nearly two millions of the former in the Punjab, and over half a million of the latter in Bombay, and approaching that number in Rajputana, with comparatively few elsewhere. The Pa.r.s.ees, or Parsis, who were driven from Persia by the Mohammedans, number 76,774 in Bombay,--not the city, but the presidency.

"In the small state of Travancore, where my friend Sir Modava was born, there are said to be four hundred and twenty different castes. The distinction is sometimes the result of occupation, branch of trade, or some accidental circ.u.mstance. Let me read a short extract from a book from your library:--

"'Among the lowest cla.s.ses caste has degenerated into a fastidious tenacity of the rights and privileges of station. For example, the man who sweeps will not take an empty cup from your hand; your groom will not mow a little gra.s.s; a coolie will carry any load, however offensive, on his head, but even in a matter of life and death would refuse to carry a man, for that is the business of another caste.

"'When an English servant pleads that such a thing is not his place, his excuse is a.n.a.logous to that of the Hindu servant when he pleads his caste. When an Englishman of birth or profession, which is held to confer gentility, refuses to a.s.sociate with a tradesman or mechanic; or when members of a secret society exclude all others from their meetings; or when any other social distinction arises, it would present itself to the mind of the Hindu as a regulation of caste.'

"It is a barrier to the progress of Christianity in many ways. It is generally thought that a Christian convert cannot be restored to his caste if he should backslide; and the superst.i.tion of the low-cla.s.s natives is a rhinoceros s.h.i.+eld, which it is still difficult to penetrate; but in the end the Cross will come off conqueror, as it always has and always will.

"Caste does not now compel a native to pursue his father's calling, except, perhaps, in the case of Brahmins. For that matter, Brahmins serve in the army, and even act as cooks and in similar occupations. Men of all castes have risen to exalted positions, just as poor men, with none of the advantages of high birth, have in England. The loss of caste has been regarded by the ignorant native here as the most terrible thing that could possibly happen to him; but it is not so in practice, for it has been accomplished by giving a very indifferent supper.

"When an outcast enters another caste, he is well and heartily received as a convert. As you proceed through India you will learn more about this stumbling-block of superst.i.tion and ignorance.

"The 57,000,000 Mohammedans, of whom 23,658,000 are in Bengal, and over 6,000,000 in Bombay, are either descendants of emigrating Asiatics, or Hindus converted to that faith. Their religion is a mixture of the doctrines of the Prophet and local idolatry; for they have been somewhat infected by the prevailing wors.h.i.+p of the natives. The Pa.r.s.ees are an educated mercantile cla.s.s, the great body of them being found in Bombay.

They are fire-wors.h.i.+ppers; and their creed is that of Zoroaster, who flourished not less than 800 years before Christ. The Zend-Avesta is the sacred book of the sect, containing their religion and their philosophy.

The Caliph Omar conquered the Persians, and established Mohammedanism there, persecuting all who would not believe. The obstinate Pa.r.s.ees fled to India."

"The Pa.r.s.ees of the present day are their descendants, and still cling to their ancient faith. Like all sects, they are fully tolerated by the British government, and are considered one of the most respectable and thriving cla.s.ses of the community. They are largely merchants and land-owners, and bear the highest reputation for honesty, industry, and as peaceful citizens. They are quite prepossessing, and many of their ladies are remarkably beautiful, though I have seen a fairer American than any one of them.

"Some of them have studied law in England, and all are forward to avail themselves of the advantages of education. A merchant-prince of this sect was noted as a philanthropist; and for the vast sums of money he gave for benevolent inst.i.tutions, the Queen knighted him, as she did Sir Modava for his public service. This gentleman is Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy He died in 1859."

"Pa.r.s.ees do not eat anything cooked by a person of another religion, and reject beef and pork, especially hams. They are not permitted to marry outside of their own sect. Their dead are not buried or cremated, but are committed to what is called the Tower of Silence. The bodies are exposed on an iron grating, where the carniverous birds of the air can get to them until the flesh has all disappeared. Then the sun-dried bones fall through into a receptacle, from which they are removed to a cavern in the earth."

"How horrid!" exclaimed the ladies with one voice.

"The Pa.r.s.ee does not think so; and perhaps he has the same view you have of our manner of disposing of the dead. In spite of the awe and respect with which the Pa.r.s.ees regard fire, they are about the only eastern people who do not smoke. But I think you need a rest by this time, and I will retire for a little while."

The company applauded as usual, and then began to pace the promenade deck.

CHAPTER XIII

LORD TREMLYN DISCOURSES MORE ABOUT INDIA

The delightful weather of the forenoon charmed the party as they walked the deck. It was mid-summer in the middle of the winter, as they looked at it; for the almanac of home lingered in their minds, though the days were longer. The sun was rather warm on both sides of noon, though it was not oppressive, and the abundant awnings protected the pa.s.sengers from its more searching rays.

Statistical as the lecture had been, the viscount had made it interesting by softening the figures with his comparisons; and some of his points, even in regard to the States, were new to them, and especially in regard to the United Kingdom. In about half an hour they were summoned to Conference Hall again for a continuation of the lecture.

"From the vast emigration to your country, ladies and gentlemen, I suppose there must be a great variety of people on your territory. The Germans, the English, the Irish, the Scandinavians, the Italians, and other nationalities, in the process of a.s.similation, although very many of them have become as American as Americans themselves, take the manners and customs, the national peculiarities, of the fatherland with them.

"The Irish drink whiskey, the Germans beer, and the Italians are apt to have a stilletto about them. Then the antecedents, climate, politics, and other influences, have made the East differ from the West, and the South from both of them. Lynch law prevails to a considerable extent in the latter, never in the Eastern and Middle States, and very rarely in the West. But all Americans speak the same language; and foreigners are compelled to learn English in order to get on at all, and it has become one of the bonds of your union."

"In India there are not less than twenty-seven languages and dialects in use; and they indicate so many different kinds of people, for we can hardly call them nations, though in many respects they are such. This excellent map behind me, which is worthy of the highest praise as a home-made production, will enable me to give you a better idea of my subject."

"The ingenious artist has colored the different divisions so that you can make them out. The three presidencies are the most notable divisions, and they include all the inferior ones. The Bengal Presidency includes the north-eastern part, from Afghanistan to Burma. The Madras, the southeastern part, with most of the peninsula. The Bombay covers the greater part of the west coast. The Deccan is a portion of the peninsula."

"It would take me three weeks to describe all the divisions of India, and I shall not attempt to do it. It would be better done as you travel over the country. Eighteen of them are Directly governed by the English, and thirteen of them are still under the nominal control of the native princes; but all the latter have a British resident as the adviser of the reigning rajah.

"The English-speaking people of India are a mere bagatelle compared with the enormous population, being only 238,499; but with the army they have been able to hold the country in subjection. The British government takes a fatherly interest in the native states, and they have been loyal without exception in later years, though the history of India will show that not all of them have always been so."

"Until the year 1858 the government was in the hands of the East India Company, of which you will learn more in the history of India. In 1877 her majesty, the queen, a.s.sumed the t.i.tle of Empress of India, and she is the ruler of the country. The government of the highest resort in the affairs of India is a secretary of state, residing in London. He is a member of the cabinet, and has an under-secretary. He is a.s.sisted by a council of ten or fifteen members."

"The executive government, administered in India, is the governor-general in council. He is the viceroy of the crown, and is a.s.sisted by six members of the executive council, each of whom has his function in the affairs of the state; and the commander-in-chief of the army is _ex-officio_ a seventh member. This body is really the cabinet of the viceroy. The laws are made by this council, with from six to a dozen members appointed by the viceroy. This is the way the machine is operated.

"The civil service of the government is rendered mainly by Europeans, though the natives are eligible to office as employees. The English system in the appointment of its officials prevails, and all candidates are regularly examined. Those of you who have looked over Bradshaw's 'Guide to India' will find descriptions of the several examinations for various employments."

"I wish the English system could be transferred to the United States," said Uncle Moses with great unction.

"You have made a beginning, and perhaps you will come to it in time. The civil service prevails in the provinces and states of India as well as in the general government, though the compet.i.tion is open to the natives.

"The soldiers of the East India Company became the military force of the British crown when the government was a.s.sumed. The English army in India now consists of 74,033 men of all arms, and the native army of 144,735, a total standing army of 218,786, which is its strength at the present time.

It is a curious fact that, as the native troops are recruited by voluntary enlistment, all castes and races, including Brahmins, are drawn in by the good pay and the pension promised.

"The navy of the East India Company was superseded by the royal navy in 1863; and a dozen or fifteen s.h.i.+ps of war are stationed in these waters, with an admiral as commander-in-chief, whose headquarters are at Bombay.

The Indian treasury contributes annually to the expense of this force. The great steam navigation companies are available to recruit this branch of the defence of the country.

"The laws are made, and the inst.i.tutions of India are regulated, by Parliament; and the administration of law and justice is substantially the same as in the United Kingdom. The regular police consists of 160,000 officers and men; and a portion of the expense of this force is defrayed by the towns, the large cities mainly. Besides the city police, there are 560,000 in charge of the villages. The constabulary are natives, with European officers, one to every seven square miles and 1,300 inhabitants, indicating peaceful communities. About 12,000 of the 82,000 persons under sentence are in the convict colonies at the Andaman Islands.

"The educational inst.i.tutions are progressive, and 400 newspapers are published in various languages, most of them with small circulations, 20,000 being the largest in India. The post and telegraph systems are well cared for; and 17,564 miles of railway are in operation, with others in process of construction. The manufactures, both in metal and fibre, have always been remarkably fine, and the quality is still kept up. Cotton factories have been established, with native labor, which promise great results to the industry of the country.

"The loss of life on account of famine, caused by the failure of the monsoon rains, has been terrific in some years. Ca.n.a.ls and reservoirs for irrigation as well as navigation have been built in order to remove this evil. In 1874 16,000,000 was expended in the relief of sufferers by the government. Since that time a famine fund has been established; and in years of plenty a million and a half sterling has been set aside for this object.

"The excessive density of the population has induced the government to favor emigration; and over a hundred thousand have gone to British Guiana and the West Indies, and other countries. The currency of India will be likely to bother you a little. The silver _rupee_ is the unit; though when you see 'R.x.' over or at the left of a column of figures, it means tens of _rupees_. The nominal value of a _rupee_ is two s.h.i.+llings, about half a dollar of your money; but it is never worth that in gold, the standard of England in recent years. It was some years ago at a premium of twopence, but for the last three years it has averaged only 1_s_. 5-1/8_d_. Its value varies with the gold price of silver in London.

"There is also a government paper currency in circulation, amounting to 16,000,000 sterling. The smallest copper coin is the _pie_, worth half a farthing, equal to a quarter of a cent of your money. Three of them make a _pice_, a farthing and a half, three-quarters of a cent. Four _pice_ make an _anna_, a penny and a half, three cents. Sixteen _annas_ make a _rupee_. Sixteen _rupees_ make a gold _mohur_."

"Those small pieces are about as insignificant as those of Egypt,"

suggested Mr. Woolridge.