Fast Food Nation Part 8

The recent purchase of IBP by Tyson Foods has created the world's biggest and most powerful meatpacking firm, with the largest market share in beef and poultry, the second-largest in pork. The Tyson/IBP merger fulfills every independent rancher's worst nightmare about being reduced to the status of a poultry grower - and portend even faster line speeds at meatpacking plants. In order to complete the purchase, Tyson Foods had to a.s.sume $1.7 billion in debt. As a result, the new meatpacking colossus will likely be under great pressure to s.h.i.+p as much meat as possible out the door.

Over the past year, the McDonald's Corporation has proven, beyond any doubt, that it can force its meatpacking suppliers to make fundamental changes quickly. If McDonald's insisted that the large meatpackers improve working conditions and reduce injury levels, these companies would do so. The cost of slowing down their production lines would be insignificant compared to the cost of losing their biggest customer. If McDonald's can send auditors into slaughterhouses to monitor the ethical treatment of cattle, it can certainly do the same for poor immigrant workers. As to the company's ability to influence this sort of behavior, I agree wholeheartedly with the American Meat Inst.i.tute: "If McDonald's is requiring something of their suppliers, it has a pretty profound effect." Unlike compliance with the FDA's feed rules, which required an elaborate new system of paperwork and affidavits, it wouldn't take weeks to make America's slaughterhouses safer. If McDonald's were to demand that the line speeds be slowed down, preventing untold misery and harm, it could be accomplished in an instant.

dog eat dog.

AS OF THIS WRITING, about a hundred people have died from vCJD, the human form of mad cow disease. Although every one of those deaths was tragic and unnecessary, they must be viewed in a larger perspective. Roughly the same number of people die every day in the United States from automobile accidents - and yet we do not live in fear of cars. At the moment there is no cure for vCJD, and it is impossible to predict how many people will get the disease by eating tainted meat. A great deal of scientific uncertainty still surrounds various attributes of the pathogen, such as the degree of infectivity among humans and the size of an infectious dose. About 800,000 cattle with mad cow disease were unwittingly eaten by people in Great Britain. One crucial determinant of the eventual death toll is the average incubation period for vCJD. That statistic is currently unknown. If it takes about ten years for most infected people to develop the disease, then we are now in the middle of the epidemic, and perhaps a thousand or so will die. If the average incubation period is twenty, thirty, or forty years - as the latest science suggests - then the epidemic is just beginning, and hundreds of thousands may die. Time will tell.

Regardless of whether mad cow causes a small outbreak among humans or a deadly modern plague, it will haunt the beef industry for years, much as Three Mile Island and Chern.o.byl changed att.i.tudes toward nuclear power. The spread of BSE in Europe has revealed how secret alliances between agribusiness and government can endanger the public health. It has shown how the desire for profit can overrule every other consideration. British agricultural officials were concerned as early as 1987 that eating meat from BSE-infected cattle might pose a risk to human beings. That information was suppressed for years, and the possibility of any health risk was strenuously denied, in order to protect exports of British beef. Scientists who disagreed with the official line were publicly attacked and kept off government committees investigating BSE. Official denials of the truth delayed important health measures and led to some absurdities. The British decision to keep some of the most infective cattle parts (brains, spleens, spinal materials, thymus glands, and intestines) out of the human food supply was prompted not by health or agricultural officials, but by a leading manufacturer of pet foods. Worried by mounting evidence that mad cow disease might have the ability to cross species barriers, Pedigree Master Foods decided to keep cattle offal out of its products and told the Ministry of Agriculture that it was a good idea to do the same with food intended for human consumption. Meanwhile, British children were being served some of the nation's cheapest meats - hamburgers, sausages, and mince pies full of potentially contaminated offal - because the 1980 Education Act had eliminated government subsidies for nutritious school meals.

A great many British pets were eating safer food than the British people, until November of 1989, when the government banned the sale of cattle offal and its use in the manufacture of ground beef. Seven months later, the worst fears of Pedigree Master Foods were confirmed; a Siamese cat named Max died in Bristol from a feline variant of BSE, after eating contaminated cat food. The death of "Mad Max," as the tabloids dubbed him, proved that mad cow could indeed cross the species barrier. Nevertheless, the British government denied for six more years that the disease posed any risk to human beings.

Governments throughout Europe ignored the interests of consumers while protecting those of agribusiness. A recent report by the French senate found that from 1988 to 2000 the agriculture ministry in that country minimized the danger of mad cow and "constantly sought to prevent or delay the introduction of precautionary measures." Health officials were repeatedly ignored in order to block decisions that "might have had an adverse effect on the compet.i.tiveness of the agri-foodstuffs industry." Great Britain banned the feeding of ruminants to ruminants in 1988, but continued to export animal feed potentially contaminated with BSE for another eight years - s.h.i.+pping about 150 million pounds of the stuff to dozens of countries and thereby turning a local outbreak of mad cow into one with worldwide ramifications. Other countries in the European Union imported the cheap British feed and then exported it to North Africa and the Middle East.

The recent outbreak of mad cow disease in j.a.pan was most likely caused by infected feed from Europe. j.a.panese agricultural officials displayed remarkable incompetence in responding to the threat of BSE. Five years after the British government acknowledged the link between BSE and serious illness in human beings, j.a.panese farmers were still feeding meat-and-bonemeal to their cattle, without violating any law. When the Scientific Steering Commission of the European Commission warned in June of 2001 that such practices created a high risk of a BSE outbreak, the j.a.panese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) strongly denied the risk and blocked publication of the EU report. Three months later, a j.a.panese cow tested positive for BSE. A senior MAFF official a.s.sured the public that the animal's carca.s.s had been "disposed of." In fact, MAFF had inadvertently allowed the tainted meat to be rendered into animal feed.

Today nations with BSE must not only confront the prospect of slaughtering millions of potentially infected cattle, but must also figure out what to do with their remains. In Great Britain, about a billion pounds of rendered cattle sit at waste sites, vast mounds of fine brown powder, awaiting incineration. In j.a.pan, plans are being made to blend rendered cattle with concrete - and use the mixture as a building material. In Denmark, a company is now erecting the world's first power plant that generates electricity by burning cattle.

Thanks to the McDonald's Corporation, the FDA's animal feed restrictions are most likely being obeyed in the United States. But those prohibitions may not be strict enough to prevent the spread of BSE. The feeding of all animal proteins to all farm animals has been banned throughout the European Union. Such a ban was justified as a means of preventing hog and poultry feed from winding up in cattle troughs. The ban will also, however, halt the transmission of mad cow through new and unexpected means. John Collinge - a professor at London's Imperial College School of Medicine and a prominent member of the British government's Spongiform Encephalopathy Advisory Committee - believes that BSE may easily cross the species barrier and survive undetected in animals that outwardly show no symptoms of the disease. If pigs or poultry were to be found silently carrying mad cow, the FDA's feed restrictions would prove futile. The continued use of cattle blood in cattle feed seems especially unwise. "All cannibalistic recycling is potentially dangerous," Collinge warns, "and I have said that repeatedly."

The USDA, the FDA, and the American Meat Inst.i.tute oppose any additional prohibition on what can be fed to livestock. They argue that new restrictions are unnecessary, because mad cow disease has never been detected in the United States. Their argument on behalf of continuing to feed animal proteins to livestock is a risky form of denial, an exercise in wishful thinking. By the time Great Britain discovered its first two cows with BSE, at least 60,000 other cattle there were already infected. The claim that mad cow disease has never been detected in the United States is accurate, as of this writing. The USDA, however, has not tried very hard to find it. "If you don't look, you won't find," says Dr Perluigi Gambetti, a BSE expert who heads the National Prion Disease Surveillance Center at Case Western Reserve University. "Unless we test more, we will never know if we have it here." Since 1990, approximately 375 million cattle have been slaughtered in the United States, and about 15,000 of them were tested for mad cow. Belgium, with a cattle herd roughly one-thirtieth the size of ours, plans to test 400,000 for mad cow disease every year.

The current FDA feed rules are primarily concerned with efficiency and utility, not public health. They allow cattle to be fed pigs, pigs to be fed cattle, cattle to be fed poultry, and poultry to be fed cattle. They allow dogs and cats to be fed dogs and cats. Although leading American manufacturers promise never to put rendered pets into their pet food, it is still legal to do so. A Canadian company, Sanimal Inc., was putting 40,000 pounds of dead dogs and dead cats into its dog and cat food every week, until discontinuing the practice in June, 2001. "This food is healthy and good," said the company's vice president of procurement, responding to critics, "but some people don't like to see meat meal that contains any pets."

Perhaps the most effective action taken by the federal government to prevent the introduction of BSE to the United States - a 1989 ban on imports of livestock and feed from Great Britain - was the one action that threatened no economic harm to the American meat industry. The ban on imports, like any protectionist measure, helped American producers. But a strict FDA prohibition of all animal protein in animal feeds would reduce some of the profit that American agribusiness firms can derive from vertical integration. At the moment, the most common source of animal protein in poultry feed isn't hogs or cattle. It's poultry. Tyson Foods takes leftover chicken meat and skin and intestines from its poultry slaughterhouses, s.h.i.+ps them to Tyson feed plants, adds them to chicken feed, and then provides the feed to Tyson growers, so that baby chicks can eat their ancestors. The Tyson feed mill in Buzzard Bluff, Arkansas, processes about 10 million pounds of chicken parts every week.

The mad cow epidemic has greatly reduced beef consumption in Europe and j.a.pan, devastating farmers who raise cattle. Livestock practices that once seemed to be cost-efficient turned out to be disastrously inefficient. Feelings of anger and betrayal among consumers have prompted a fundamental reappraisal of agricultural policies. Food safety, animal welfare, and environmental concerns are gaining precedence over the traditional agribusiness emphasis on production levels. The Scandinavian countries, Italy, and Austria are seeking basic, structural changes in how European food is produced. Even Great Britain now seems to be questioning its reliance on high-volume, industrialized farming. For years the Labour government of Tony Blair had forged close ties with leading food processing, supermarket, and fast food companies. Blair's handling of the foot-and-mouth epidemic seemed more influenced by the export needs of Nestle, the world's largest food company, than by the latest scientific evidence on the efficacy of vaccines. His unapologetic defense of a 15,000 political donation from the McDonald's Corporation prompted critics to call the majority party "McLabour." His appointee to serve as Rural Recovery Coordinator, Chris Haskins, headed a large food processing firm, ran a dairy that supplied the milk for McDonald's milkshakes, and publicly belittled the prospects for small farms and organic agriculture. Nevertheless, even Lord Haskins proposed a s.h.i.+ft of EU agricultural policy in October of 2001, arguing that subsidies should be awarded to farms whose production methods do not harm the environment.

The German government has taken the lead on this issue in the EU, calling for the de-industrialization of agriculture and planning to make 20 percent of its farmland organic by the year 2010. "Things will no longer be the way they are," declared Renate Kuenast, who serves as the German minister for agriculture - and for consumer protection. Kuenast says that Germans must develop the same reverence for their food that they've always had for their beer. Under a German law that dates back to the early sixteenth century, no additives can be put into beer, which must be made using only water, hops, and barley. Vowing to outlaw the use of antibiotics and other additives in animal feed, Kuenast offers a revolutionary alternative: "Our cows should get only water, grain, and gra.s.s."

Future historians, I hope, will consider the American fast food industry a relic of the twentieth century - a set of att.i.tudes, systems, and beliefs that emerged from postwar southern California, that embodied its limitless faith in technology, that quickly spread across the globe, flourished briefly, and then receded, once its true costs became clear and its thinking became obsolete. We cannot ignore the meaning of mad cow. It is one more warning about unintended consequences, about human arrogance and the blind wors.h.i.+p of science. The same mindset that would add 4-methylacetophenone and solvent to your milkshake would also feed pigs to cows. Whatever replaces the fast food industry should be regional, diverse, authentic, unpredictable, sustainable, profitable - and humble. It should know its limits. People can be fed without being fattened or deceived. This new century may bring an impatience with conformity, a refusal to be kept in the dark, less greed, more compa.s.sion, less speed, more common sense, a sense of humor about brand essences and loyalties, a view of food as more than just fuel. Things don't have to be the way they are. Despite all evidence to the contrary, I remain optimistic.

photo credits INTRODUCTION: Cheyenne Mountain. 2000 by Greg Skinner.CHAPTER 1 1: Carl Karcher holding his daughter Anne Marie beside his first hot dog stand, 1942. Courtesy of CKE, Inc.CHAPTER 2 2: Ronald McDonald in the cla.s.sroom. 1989 by Evan Johnson/Impact Visuals.CHAPTER 3 3: Working at Wendy's. 2000 by Skylar Nielsen.CHAPTER 4 4: Signs at night. 2000 by Skylar Nielsen.CHAPTER 5 5: J. R. Simplot. 1995 by Louis Psihoyos/Matrix.CHAPTER 6 6: Cattle in eastern Colorado. 2000 by Rob Buchanan.CHAPTER 7 7: Welcome to Greeley. 2000 by Eugene Richards.CHAPTER 8 8: Injured ConAgra Beef worker and his family. 2000 by Eugene Richards.CHAPTER 9 9: Alex Donley. Courtesy of Nancy Donley.CHAPTER 10 10: A Vogtland cowboy. 1999 by Franziska Heinze.EPILOGUE: Fast food nation. 2000 by Mark Mann.

notes.

Introduction.

Although I did a great deal of firsthand reporting and research for this book, I also benefited from the hard work of others. In these notes I've tried to give credit to the many people whose writing and research helped mine. Robert L. Emerson's The New Economics of Fast Food The New Economics of Fast Food (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990) offers a fine overview of the business. Though many of its statistics are out of date, the book's a.n.a.lysis of relative labor, marketing, and franchising costs remains useful. (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990) offers a fine overview of the business. Though many of its statistics are out of date, the book's a.n.a.lysis of relative labor, marketing, and franchising costs remains useful. Fast Food: Roadside Restaurants in the Automobile Age Fast Food: Roadside Restaurants in the Automobile Age, by John A. Jakle and Keith A. Sculle (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1999), is less concerned with the workings of the industry than with its impact on the American landscape and "sense of place." McDonald's has played a central role in the creation of this industry, and half a dozen books about the company provide a broad perspective of its impact on the world. Ray Kroc's memoir with Robert Anderson, Grinding It Out: The Making of McDonald's Grinding It Out: The Making of McDonald's (New York: St. Martin's Paperbacks, 1987) conveys the sensibility of its charismatic founder, an outlook that still pervades the chain. John F. Love's (New York: St. Martin's Paperbacks, 1987) conveys the sensibility of its charismatic founder, an outlook that still pervades the chain. John F. Love's McDonald's: Behind the Arches McDonald's: Behind the Arches (New York: Bantam Books, 1995) is an authorized corporate history, but an unusual one - fascinating, thoughtful, sometimes critical, and extremely well researched. (New York: Bantam Books, 1995) is an authorized corporate history, but an unusual one - fascinating, thoughtful, sometimes critical, and extremely well researched. Big Mac: The Unauthorized Story of McDonald's Big Mac: The Unauthorized Story of McDonald's (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1976), by Max Boas and Steve Chain, looks behind the McDonald's PR machine and finds a company whose behavior is frequently cynical and manipulative. John Vidal's (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1976), by Max Boas and Steve Chain, looks behind the McDonald's PR machine and finds a company whose behavior is frequently cynical and manipulative. John Vidal's McLibel: Burger Culture on Trial McLibel: Burger Culture on Trial (New York: New Press, 1997) uses a narrative of the McLibel case to provide an indictment of McDonald's and globalization. George Ritzer's (New York: New Press, 1997) uses a narrative of the McLibel case to provide an indictment of McDonald's and globalization. George Ritzer's The McDonaldization of Society: An Investigation into the Changing Character of Contemporary Social Life The McDonaldization of Society: An Investigation into the Changing Character of Contemporary Social Life (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Pine Ridge Press, 1996) applies the theories of Max Weber to contemporary America, tracing the wide-ranging effects of McDonald's zeal for efficiency and uniformity. (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Pine Ridge Press, 1996) applies the theories of Max Weber to contemporary America, tracing the wide-ranging effects of McDonald's zeal for efficiency and uniformity. McDonaldization Revisited: Critical Essays on Consumer Culture McDonaldization Revisited: Critical Essays on Consumer Culture (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1998), edited by Mark Alfino, John S. Caputo, and Robin Winyard, attests to the current influence of Ritzer's work in the field of sociology. With a much less theoretical emphasis, Stan Luxenberg's (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1998), edited by Mark Alfino, John S. Caputo, and Robin Winyard, attests to the current influence of Ritzer's work in the field of sociology. With a much less theoretical emphasis, Stan Luxenberg's Roadside Empires: How the Chains Franchised America Roadside Empires: How the Chains Franchised America (New York: Viking, 1985) examines the fast food industry's role in helping to create America's postwar service economy. I found a great deal of interesting material in trade publications such as (New York: Viking, 1985) examines the fast food industry's role in helping to create America's postwar service economy. I found a great deal of interesting material in trade publications such as Restaurant Business, Restaurants and Inst.i.tutions, Nation's Restaurant News, and ID: The Voice of Foodservice Restaurant Business, Restaurants and Inst.i.tutions, Nation's Restaurant News, and ID: The Voice of Foodservice. For years some of the best reporting on the fast food industry has appeared in the Wall Street Journal Wall Street Journal.

Page 1 Cheyenne Mountain sits: Cheyenne Mountain sits: The description of Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station is based upon my visit to the facility, and I am grateful to Major Mike Birmingham of the U.S. s.p.a.ce Command for his subsequent help in obtaining additional information. The description of Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station is based upon my visit to the facility, and I am grateful to Major Mike Birmingham of the U.S. s.p.a.ce Command for his subsequent help in obtaining additional information.3 about $6 billion on fast food... more than $110 billion: about $6 billion on fast food... more than $110 billion: Both of these estimates were provided by the National Restaurant a.s.sociation. Both of these estimates were provided by the National Restaurant a.s.sociation.more money on fast food than on higher education: My calculation is based on figures contained in "Personal Consumption Expenditures in Millions of Current Dollars," U.S. Commerce Department, 2000. According to the Commerce Department, 1999 consumer spending on fast food exceeded spending on higher education ($75.6 billion); personal computers and peripherals ($25.9 billion); computer software ($8.4 billion); new cars ($101 billion); movies ($6.7 billion); books and maps ($29.5 billion); magazines and sheet music ($19 billion); newspapers ($16.7 billion); video rentals ($8.6 billion); and records, tapes, and disks ($12.2 billion).about one-quarter of the adult population: This is my own estimate, based on the following information from the National Restaurant a.s.sociation: about half of the adult population visits a restaurant on any given day, and more than half of the restaurant industry's annual revenues now come from fast food. Since the average check at a fast food restaurant is much lower that that at a full-service restaurant, my estimate may be too conservative (and the actual number of daily fast food visits may be higher).4 the hourly wage of the average U.S. worker: the hourly wage of the average U.S. worker: By "average" I mean workers a.s.signed to nonsupervisory tasks. See "Real Average Weekly and Hourly Earnings of Production and Non-Supervisory Workers, 196798 (1998 Dollars)," Economic Policy Inst.i.tute, 1999; "Average Hourly and Weekly Earnings by Private Industry Group, 19801998," By "average" I mean workers a.s.signed to nonsupervisory tasks. See "Real Average Weekly and Hourly Earnings of Production and Non-Supervisory Workers, 196798 (1998 Dollars)," Economic Policy Inst.i.tute, 1999; "Average Hourly and Weekly Earnings by Private Industry Group, 19801998," Statistical Abstract of the United States Statistical Abstract of the United States (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau, 1999), p. 443. (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau, 1999), p. 443.about one-third of American mothers... today almost two-thirds: See "Labor Force Partic.i.p.ation Rates for Wives, Husbands Present, by Age of Own Youngest Child, 19751998," See "Labor Force Partic.i.p.ation Rates for Wives, Husbands Present, by Age of Own Youngest Child, 19751998," Statistical Abstract, Statistical Abstract, p. 417. p. 417.Cameron Lynne Macdonald and Carmen Sirianni: See See Working in the Service Society Working in the Service Society (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996), edited by Cameron Lynne Macdonald and Carmen Sirianni, p. 2. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996), edited by Cameron Lynne Macdonald and Carmen Sirianni, p. 2.A generation ago, three-quarters of the money... Today about half of the money: The comparison is between money spent on food for consumption at home and money spent on foodservice. See Charlene Price, "Fast Food Chains Penetrate New Markets: Industry Overview," The comparison is between money spent on food for consumption at home and money spent on foodservice. See Charlene Price, "Fast Food Chains Penetrate New Markets: Industry Overview," USDA Food Review USDA Food Review, January 1993; "Personal Consumption Expenditures," U.S. Commerce Department.90 percent of the country's new jobs: Cited in Macdonald and Sirianni, Cited in Macdonald and Sirianni, Service Society Service Society, p. 1.4 An estimated one out of every eight workers in the United States: An estimated one out of every eight workers in the United States: Cited in "Welcome to McDonald's," McDonald's Corporation, 1996. Cited in "Welcome to McDonald's," McDonald's Corporation, 1996.annually hires about one million people: This is my own estimate, based on the following: McDonald's has about 14,000 restaurants in the United States, each employing about 50 crew members; a conservative estimate of the turnover rate among McDonald's crew members is about 150 percent; having a workforce of roughly 700,000 and an annual turnover rate of 150 percent requires the hiring of about 1 million new workers every year. In its promotional literature, the Mc-Donald's Corporation claims to have "surpa.s.sed the U.S. Army as the nation's largest training organization." Given how McDonald's actually "trains" its workers, I have used the word "hires" as a synonym. See "Welcome to McDonald's."the nation's largest purchaser of beef, pork, and potatoes... the second largest purchaser of chicken: See Love, See Love, Behind the Arches Behind the Arches, pp. 34; Mark D. Jekanowski, "Causes and Consequences of Fast Food Sales Growth; Statistical Data Included," USDA Food Review USDA Food Review, January 1, 1999. McDonald's role as the leading pork purchaser was described to me by a pork industry executive who prefers not to be named.the largest owner of retail property in the world: See Bruce Upbin, "Beyond Burgers," See Bruce Upbin, "Beyond Burgers," Forbes Forbes, November 1, 1999; Love, Behind the Arches Behind the Arches, p. 4.earns the majority of its profits: McDonald's has an unusual franchise arrangement, serving as landlord for its franchisees and adjusting lease payments according to sales levels. About 85 percent of the McDonald's in the United States are operated by franchisees. See Emerson, New Economics of Fast Food New Economics of Fast Food, pp. 59-62; Love, Behind the Arches Love, Behind the Arches, pp. 15457; "Welcome to McDonald's."spends more money on advertising and marketing: Interview with Lynn Fava, Compet.i.tive Media Reporting. Interview with Lynn Fava, Compet.i.tive Media Reporting.the world's most famous brand: See "McDonald's Wins Top Spot in Global Brand Ratings," See "McDonald's Wins Top Spot in Global Brand Ratings," Brand Strategy Brand Strategy, November 22, 1996.more playgrounds than any other private ent.i.ty: Its nearest rival, Burger King, operates about one-quarter the number of playgrounds. Its nearest rival, Burger King, operates about one-quarter the number of playgrounds.one of the nation's largest distributors of toys: According to the British newspaper the According to the British newspaper the Evening Standard, Evening Standard, in 1998 McDonald's purchased 1.3 billion toys from Chinese manufacturers. Cited in Lachlan Colquhoun, "McDonald's Soars to Success in Chinese Fast Food Market," in 1998 McDonald's purchased 1.3 billion toys from Chinese manufacturers. Cited in Lachlan Colquhoun, "McDonald's Soars to Success in Chinese Fast Food Market," Evening Standard, Evening Standard, October 21, 1999. October 21, 1999.96 percent could identify Ronald McDonald: percent could identify Ronald McDonald: Cited in "Welcome to McDonald's." Cited in "Welcome to McDonald's." The only fictional character with a higher degree: The only fictional character with a higher degree: Max Boas and Steve Chain express some reservations about the accuracy of this study, which was conducted by McDonald's, but I find it credible. A more recent study, conducted by an independent market research firm, found that at least 80 percent of the children in the nine foreign countries surveyed could recognize Ronald McDonald. See Boas and Chain, Max Boas and Steve Chain express some reservations about the accuracy of this study, which was conducted by McDonald's, but I find it credible. A more recent study, conducted by an independent market research firm, found that at least 80 percent of the children in the nine foreign countries surveyed could recognize Ronald McDonald. See Boas and Chain, Big Mac Big Mac, p. 115; Love, Behind the Arches Behind the Arches, p. 2; and "Barbie, McDonald's Find Common Ground," Selling to Kids Selling to Kids, September 30, 1998.more widely recognized than the Christian cross: A survey by a marketing firm called Sponsors.h.i.+p Research International - conducted among 7,000 people in the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, India, and j.a.pan - found that 88 percent could identify the golden arches and that 54 percent could identify the Christian cross. The most widely recognized symbol was the interlocking rings of the Olympics. See "Golden Arches More Familiar Than the Cross," A survey by a marketing firm called Sponsors.h.i.+p Research International - conducted among 7,000 people in the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, India, and j.a.pan - found that 88 percent could identify the golden arches and that 54 percent could identify the Christian cross. The most widely recognized symbol was the interlocking rings of the Olympics. See "Golden Arches More Familiar Than the Cross," Plain Dealer Plain Dealer, August 26, 1995.5 " "the McDonaldization of America": Jim Hightower, Eat Your Heart Out: Food Profiteering in America Eat Your Heart Out: Food Profiteering in America (New York: Crown, 1975), p. 237. (New York: Crown, 1975), p. 237."bigger is not not better better": Ibid., p. 3.the final remains of one out of every nine Americans: Cited in Erin Kelly, "Death Takes a Holiday," Cited in Erin Kelly, "Death Takes a Holiday," Fortune Fortune, March 15, 1999."We have found out... that we cannot trust": Quoted in Love, Behind the Arches Behind the Arches, p. 144.6 America's largest private employer: America's largest private employer: The health care industry employs more workers, but a large proportion of them work at publicly owned and operated facilities. See "Employment by Selected Industry, with Projections 19862006," The health care industry employs more workers, but a large proportion of them work at publicly owned and operated facilities. See "Employment by Selected Industry, with Projections 19862006," Statistical Abstract, Statistical Abstract, p. 429. p. 429.the real value of wages in the restaurant industry: See Patrick Barta, "Rises in Many Salaries Barely Keep Pace with Inflation," See Patrick Barta, "Rises in Many Salaries Barely Keep Pace with Inflation," Wall Street Journal, Wall Street Journal, February 1, 2000. February 1, 2000.roughly 3.5 million fast food workers: The figure was supplied by the National Restaurant a.s.sociation.by far the largest group of minimum wage earners in the United States: Interview with Alan B. Krueger, professor of politics and economics at Princeton University. Interview with Alan B. Krueger, professor of politics and economics at Princeton University.The only Americans who consistently earn: Fast food workers are at the bottom of the restaurant industry's pay scale, and the industry pays the lowest wages of any nonagricultural endeavor. Similarly, migrant farm workers are at the bottom of the agricultural pay scale. Although some farm laborers earn a decent hourly wage, many are paid the minimum wage - or less. See "Non-Farm Industries - Employees and Earnings, 19801998," Fast food workers are at the bottom of the restaurant industry's pay scale, and the industry pays the lowest wages of any nonagricultural endeavor. Similarly, migrant farm workers are at the bottom of the agricultural pay scale. Although some farm laborers earn a decent hourly wage, many are paid the minimum wage - or less. See "Non-Farm Industries - Employees and Earnings, 19801998," Statistical Abstract Statistical Abstract, p. 436; and Eric Schlosser, "In the Strawberry Fields," Atlantic Monthly Atlantic Monthly, November 1995.approximately three hamburgers: My estimate is based on the following: Per capita consumption of ground beef is now about thirty pounds a year, with the vast majority consumed as hamburgers. A regular hamburger patty at McDonald's weighs 1.6 ounces; using that as a standard, Americans eat about three hundred burgers a year (five to six a week). Using a Quarter Pounder as the standard, Americans eat about 120 hamburgers a year (at least two a week). The consumption figure that I've used a.s.sumes an average patty weight somewhere between 1.6 and 4 ounces. See "Hamburger Consumption Takes a Hit, But a Reversal of Fortune Is in Offing," My estimate is based on the following: Per capita consumption of ground beef is now about thirty pounds a year, with the vast majority consumed as hamburgers. A regular hamburger patty at McDonald's weighs 1.6 ounces; using that as a standard, Americans eat about three hundred burgers a year (five to six a week). Using a Quarter Pounder as the standard, Americans eat about 120 hamburgers a year (at least two a week). The consumption figure that I've used a.s.sumes an average patty weight somewhere between 1.6 and 4 ounces. See "Hamburger Consumption Takes a Hit, But a Reversal of Fortune Is in Offing," National Provisioner National Provisioner, August 1999.four orders of french fries every week: Per capita consumption of frozen potato products (a category that is almost entirely french fries) is about 30 pounds a year. A regular order of french fries at McDonald's weighs 68 grams. Converting the pounds to kilograms and then dividing that number by 68 leaves you with the number of annual french fry servings: 205 (about four per week). See "Potatoes: U.S. Per Capita Utilization by Category, 19911999," USDA Economic Research Service, 2000. Per capita consumption of frozen potato products (a category that is almost entirely french fries) is about 30 pounds a year. A regular order of french fries at McDonald's weighs 68 grams. Converting the pounds to kilograms and then dividing that number by 68 leaves you with the number of annual french fry servings: 205 (about four per week). See "Potatoes: U.S. Per Capita Utilization by Category, 19911999," USDA Economic Research Service, 2000.new restaurants are opening there at a faster pace: See "1999 to Mark Eighth Consecutive Year of Growth for Restaurant Industry," news release, National Restaurant a.s.sociation, December 22, 1998.8 "interstate socialism": "interstate socialism": Stephen B. G.o.ddard, Stephen B. G.o.ddard, Getting There: The Epic Struggle between Road and Rail in the American Century Getting There: The Epic Struggle between Road and Rail in the American Century (New York: Basic Books, 1994), p. 179. (New York: Basic Books, 1994), p. 179.the inflation-adjusted value of the minimum wage: Between 1968 and and 1989 the real value of the minimum wage fell from $7.21 to $4.24; in 1995, it stood at $4.38. See "Federal Minimum Wage Rates: 19541996," Between 1968 and and 1989 the real value of the minimum wage fell from $7.21 to $4.24; in 1995, it stood at $4.38. See "Federal Minimum Wage Rates: 19541996," Statistical Abstract Statistical Abstract, p. 447.more prison inmates than full-time farmers: Today there are fewer than 1 million full-time farmers in the United States. And there are about 1.3 million people in the nation's prisons. For the number of full-time farmers, see "Appendix Table 21 - Characteristics of Farms and Their Operators, by Farm Typology Group, 1996," Today there are fewer than 1 million full-time farmers in the United States. And there are about 1.3 million people in the nation's prisons. For the number of full-time farmers, see "Appendix Table 21 - Characteristics of Farms and Their Operators, by Farm Typology Group, 1996," Rural Conditions and Trends Rural Conditions and Trends, USDA Economic Research Service, February 1999. For the number of prison inmates, see "Nation's Prison and Jail Population Reaches 1,860,520," press release, Bureau of Justice Statistics, April 19, 2000.9 " "the irrationality of rationality": See Ritzer, The McDonaldization of America The McDonaldization of America, pp. 12142.

1. The Founding Fathers The Founding Fathers I spent an afternoon with Carl Karcher at his Anaheim office. My account of his life is largely based on that interview and on a pair of corporate histories: B. Carolyn Knight, Making It Happen: The Story of Carl Karcher Enterprises Making It Happen: The Story of Carl Karcher Enterprises (Anaheim, Calif.: Carl Karcher Enterprises, 1981); and Carl Karcher with B. Carolyn Knight, (Anaheim, Calif.: Carl Karcher Enterprises, 1981); and Carl Karcher with B. Carolyn Knight, Never Stop Dreaming: 50 Years of Making It Happen Never Stop Dreaming: 50 Years of Making It Happen (San Marcos, Calif.: Robert Erdmann Publis.h.i.+ng, 1991). For the history of Anaheim, I relied on John Westcott, (San Marcos, Calif.: Robert Erdmann Publis.h.i.+ng, 1991). For the history of Anaheim, I relied on John Westcott, Anaheim: City of Dreams Anaheim: City of Dreams (Chatsworth, Calif.: Windsor Publications, 1990). My view of early Los Angeles has been greatly influenced by the work of Carey McWilliams, one of the twentieth century's finest and most underappreciated journalists. His (Chatsworth, Calif.: Windsor Publications, 1990). My view of early Los Angeles has been greatly influenced by the work of Carey McWilliams, one of the twentieth century's finest and most underappreciated journalists. His Southern California Country Southern California Country (New York: Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1946) and (New York: Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1946) and California: The Great Exception California: The Great Exception (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999) are still vibrant and insightful, though first published more than fifty years ago. Mike Davis is in many ways carrying forward the aims and ideals of McWilliams; (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999) are still vibrant and insightful, though first published more than fifty years ago. Mike Davis is in many ways carrying forward the aims and ideals of McWilliams; City of Quartz City of Quartz (New York: Vintage Books, 1992), especially the material on San Bernardino and Fontana, was both useful and inspiring. Kevin Starr's (New York: Vintage Books, 1992), especially the material on San Bernardino and Fontana, was both useful and inspiring. Kevin Starr's The Dream Endures: California Enters the 1940s The Dream Endures: California Enters the 1940s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997) gave me a strong sense of life there before the "fabulous boom." Richard White's (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997) gave me a strong sense of life there before the "fabulous boom." Richard White's "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991) provides a good overview of a region where free enterprise has long been celebrated more in theory than in practice. Marc Reisner's (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991) provides a good overview of a region where free enterprise has long been celebrated more in theory than in practice. Marc Reisner's Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water (New York: Penguin Books, 1987) aptly describes how water was brought to Los Angeles, and the rest of the arid West, at public expense. "Aeros.p.a.ce Capital of the World: Los Angeles" - a chapter in (New York: Penguin Books, 1987) aptly describes how water was brought to Los Angeles, and the rest of the arid West, at public expense. "Aeros.p.a.ce Capital of the World: Los Angeles" - a chapter in The Rise of the Gunbelt: The Military Remapping of Industrial America The Rise of the Gunbelt: The Military Remapping of Industrial America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), by Ann Markuson et al. - outlines how military spending fueled southern California's postwar economy. For California's role in the spread of the car culture, I relied on Kenneth T. Jackson's cla.s.sic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), by Ann Markuson et al. - outlines how military spending fueled southern California's postwar economy. For California's role in the spread of the car culture, I relied on Kenneth T. Jackson's cla.s.sic Crabgra.s.s Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States Crabgra.s.s Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). In (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). In Getting There Getting There, Stephen B. G.o.ddard shows how the free market had little to do with the triumph of the automobile. Jonathan Kwitny's "The Great Transportation Conspiracy," published in Harper's Harper's during February of 1981, is a fine piece of investigative journalism. during February of 1981, is a fine piece of investigative journalism.

The fast food memoir is a growing literary genre; in addition to Carl Karcher's, I relied on Ray Kroc's Grinding It Out Grinding It Out; James W. McLamore, The Burger King: Jim McLamore and the Building of an Empire The Burger King: Jim McLamore and the Building of an Empire (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998); Tom Monaghan, with Robert Anderson, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998); Tom Monaghan, with Robert Anderson, Pizza Tiger Pizza Tiger (New York: Random House, 1986); Colonel Harland Sanders, (New York: Random House, 1986); Colonel Harland Sanders, Life As I Have Known It Has Been "Finger Lickin' Good" Life As I Have Known It Has Been "Finger Lickin' Good" (Carol Stream, Ill.: Creation House, 1974); R. David Thomas, (Carol Stream, Ill.: Creation House, 1974); R. David Thomas, Dave's Way: A New Approach to Old-Fas.h.i.+oned Success Dave's Way: A New Approach to Old-Fas.h.i.+oned Success (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1991). Richard J. Mc-Donald, one of the founders of the chain with that name, contributed the foreword to Ronald J. McDonald's interesting book, (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1991). Richard J. Mc-Donald, one of the founders of the chain with that name, contributed the foreword to Ronald J. McDonald's interesting book, The Complete Hamburger: The History of America's Favorite Sandwich The Complete Hamburger: The History of America's Favorite Sandwich (New York: Birch Lane Press, 1997). I learned a great deal from two other books that have similar themes and many evocative photographs: Jeffrey Tennyson, (New York: Birch Lane Press, 1997). I learned a great deal from two other books that have similar themes and many evocative photographs: Jeffrey Tennyson, Hamburger Heaven: The Ill.u.s.trated History of the Hamburger Hamburger Heaven: The Ill.u.s.trated History of the Hamburger (New York: Hyperion, 1993); and Michael Karl Witzel, (New York: Hyperion, 1993); and Michael Karl Witzel, The American Drive-In: History and Folklore of the Drive-In Restaurant in American Car Culture The American Drive-In: History and Folklore of the Drive-In Restaurant in American Car Culture (Osceola, Wis.: Motor-books International, 1994). Stan Luxenberg's (Osceola, Wis.: Motor-books International, 1994). Stan Luxenberg's Roadside Empires Roadside Empires has much information on the early days of the fast food industry, as do John Love's has much information on the early days of the fast food industry, as do John Love's Behind the Arches Behind the Arches and and Big Mac Big Mac, by Max Boas and Steve Chain. William Whitworth's profile of Colonel Sanders, "Kentucky Fried," published in the New Yorker New Yorker on February 14, 1970, remains my favorite piece of writing on fast food. on February 14, 1970, remains my favorite piece of writing on fast food.

Page 13 "The harder you work": "The harder you work": Interview with Carl Karcher. Interview with Carl Karcher."This is heaven": Ibid. Ibid.the heart of southern California's citrus belt: See McWilliams, See McWilliams, Southern California Country Southern California Country, p. 206. The chapter t.i.tled "The Citrus Belt" is a good account of the region's cultural and economic life.14 the leading agricultural counties in the United States: the leading agricultural counties in the United States: Ibid., p. 213. See also Reisner, Ibid., p. 213. See also Reisner, Cadillac Desert Cadillac Desert, p. 87.about 70,000 acres: Cited in Westcott, Anaheim Anaheim, p. 67.the acronym "KIGY": Ibid., p. 54.15 "I'm in business for myself now": "I'm in business for myself now": Karcher interview. Karcher interview.the population of southern California nearly tripled: Cited in McWilliams, Cited in McWilliams, Southern California Southern California, p. 14.About 80 percent of the population: Cited ibid., p. 165.16 about a million cars in Los Angeles: about a million cars in Los Angeles: Cited ibid., p. 236. Cited ibid., p. 236.Lobbyists from the oil, tire, and automobile industries: See Jackson, See Jackson, Crabgra.s.s Frontier Crabgra.s.s Frontier, pp. 16368.General Motors secretly began to purchase: For the story of the American trolley's demise, see Kwitny, "The Great Transportation Conspiracy"; Jackson, For the story of the American trolley's demise, see Kwitny, "The Great Transportation Conspiracy"; Jackson, Crabgra.s.s Frontier Crabgra.s.s Frontier, pp. 16871; and G.o.ddard, Getting There Getting There, pp. 12037. For a contrary view, much more benign toward General Motors, see Martha J. Bianco, "Technological Innovation and the Rise and Fall of Urban Ma.s.s Transit," Journal of Urban History Journal of Urban History, March 1999.17 "People with cars are so lazy": "People with cars are so lazy": Quoted in Witzel, Quoted in Witzel, American Drive-In American Drive-In, p. 24."circular meccas of neon": Ibid., p. 47.18 " "fabulous boom": McWilliams, The Great Exception The Great Exception, p. 233.federal government spent nearly $20 billion... federal spending was responsible for nearly half: Cited in White, Cited in White, Your Misfortune Your Misfortune, p. 498.the second-largest manufacturing center: Ibid., p. 498. Ibid., p. 498.the focus of the local economy: Ibid., p. 515. Ibid., p. 515.19 "Wors.h.i.+p as you are": "Wors.h.i.+p as you are": Quoted in Jackson, Quoted in Jackson, Crabgra.s.s Frontier Crabgra.s.s Frontier, p. 264.the fastest-growing city: Cited in Wescott, Cited in Wescott, Anaheim Anaheim, p. 71.Richard and Maurice McDonald: For the story of the McDonald brothers, I have relied on Kroc, For the story of the McDonald brothers, I have relied on Kroc, Grinding It Out; Grinding It Out; McDonald, McDonald, Complete Hamburger; Complete Hamburger; Love, Love, Behind the Arches; Behind the Arches; Tennyson, Tennyson, Hamburger Heaven; Hamburger Heaven; Boas and Chain, Boas and Chain, Big Mac Big Mac.20 "Imagine - No Car Hops": "Imagine - No Car Hops": The ad is reprinted in Tennyson, The ad is reprinted in Tennyson, Hamburger Heaven Hamburger Heaven, p. 62."Working-cla.s.s families": Love, Love, Behind the Arches Behind the Arches, p. 41.21 The same year the McDonald brothers opened: The same year the McDonald brothers opened: For the founding of the h.e.l.l's An-gels and the fiftieth anniversary celebration, see Phillip W. Browne, "Ventura Event a 'Milestone' for h.e.l.l's Angels," For the founding of the h.e.l.l's An-gels and the fiftieth anniversary celebration, see Phillip W. Browne, "Ventura Event a 'Milestone' for h.e.l.l's Angels," Ventura County Star Ventura County Star, March 15, 1998."They get angry when they read": Hunter S. Thompson, Hunter S. Thompson, h.e.l.l's Angels: A Strange and Terrible Saga h.e.l.l's Angels: A Strange and Terrible Saga (New York: Ballantine Books, 1995), p. 45. (New York: Ballantine Books, 1995), p. 45.22 impressed by Adolf Hitler's Reichsautobahn: impressed by Adolf Hitler's Reichsautobahn: See G.o.ddard, See G.o.ddard, Getting There Getting There, p. 181;"1956: Interstate," Business Week: 100 Years of Innovation Business Week: 100 Years of Innovation, Summer 1999. 46,000 miles of road: 46,000 miles of road: "1956: Interstate." "1956: Interstate.""Our food was exactly the same": George Clark, one of the founders of Burger Queen, made this admission. Quoted in Luxenberg, George Clark, one of the founders of Burger Queen, made this admission. Quoted in Luxenberg, Roadside Empires Roadside Empires, p. 76.William Rosenberg: For the story of Dunkin' Donuts, see Luxenberg, For the story of Dunkin' Donuts, see Luxenberg, Roadside Empires Roadside Empires, pp. 1820.Glenn W. Bell, Jr.: For the story of Taco Bell, see Love, For the story of Taco Bell, see Love, Behind the Arches Behind the Arches, pp. 267; Jakle and Sculle, Fast Food Fast Food, pp. 25758.Keith G. Cramer: For the story of Burger King, see McLamore, For the story of Burger King, see McLamore, The Burger King The Burger King.Dave Thomas: For the story of Wendy's, see Thomas, For the story of Wendy's, see Thomas, Dave's Way Dave's Way.23 Thomas S. Monaghan: Thomas S. Monaghan: For the story of Domino's, see Monaghan, For the story of Domino's, see Monaghan, Pizza Tiger Pizza Tiger.Harland Sanders: For the story of KFC, see Sanders, For the story of KFC, see Sanders, Life As I Have Known It Life As I Have Known It; and Whitworth, "Kentucky Fried.""not to call a no-good, lazy": Sanders, Sanders, Life As I Have Known It Life As I Have Known It, p. 141.24 The Motormat: The Motormat: See Witzel, See Witzel, American Drive-In American Drive-In, p. 121.the Biff-Burger chain: See Tennyson, See Tennyson, Hamburger Heaven Hamburger Heaven, p. 73."Miracle Insta Machines": See McLamore, See McLamore, The Burger King The Burger King, photo insert between pp. 126 and 127.25 one of the largest privately owned fast food chains: one of the largest privately owned fast food chains: Karcher, Karcher, Never Stop Dreaming Never Stop Dreaming, p. 79.accused of insider trading: See Karcher, See Karcher, Never Stop Dreaming Never Stop Dreaming, pp. 12324; Bruce Horovitz and Keith Bradsher, "Carl's Jr. Founder Accused of Insider Trading Scheme," Los Angeles Times Los Angeles Times, April 15, 1988; and Richard Martin, "Karchers Pay $664, 000 Fine in Stock Case," Nation's Restaurant News Nation's Restaurant News, August 7,1989.25 Carl's real estate investments proved unwise: Carl's real estate investments proved unwise: My account of Carl Karcher's financial difficulties is based primarily on my interview with him. I confirmed the details through a variety of printed sources, including "Carl Karcher Board Rejects Founder's Bid to Take Firm Private," My account of Carl Karcher's financial difficulties is based primarily on my interview with him. I confirmed the details through a variety of printed sources, including "Carl Karcher Board Rejects Founder's Bid to Take Firm Private," Wall Street Journal Wall Street Journal, December 21, 1992; Thomas R. King, "Chairman of Carl Karcher Enterprises May Seek to Oust Some Board Members," Wall Street Journal Wall Street Journal, September 2, 1993; Peggy Hesketh, "Karcher's 'G.o.dfather': Board Says Pizza Baron's Offer Is One It Can Refuse," Orange County Business Journal Orange County Business Journal, September 20, 1993; David J. Jefferson, "Fast Food Firm Ousts Karcher as Chairman," Wall Street Journal Wall Street Journal, October 4, 1993; Jim Gardner, "Foley-Karcher: Tentative Team in Control of CKE," Orange County Business Journal Orange County Business Journal, December 20, 1993; Richard Martin, "Carl N. Karcher: CKE's Founder Reflects on His Past, Looks Toward His Future," Nation's Restaurant News Nation's Restaurant News, August 3, 1998.

2. Your Trusted Friends Your Trusted Friends For the story of Ray Kroc, I relied mainly on his memoir, Grinding It Out Grinding It Out; Max Boas and Steven Chain, Big Mac Big Mac, and John Love, Behind the Arches Behind the Arches. My visit to the Ray A. Kroc museum provided many useful insights into the man. Steven Watts's The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997), is by far the best biography of Disney, drawing extensively upon material from the Disney archive and interviews with Disney's a.s.sociates. Although I disagree with some of Watts's conclusions, his research is extraordinary. Richard Schickel's (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997), is by far the best biography of Disney, drawing extensively upon material from the Disney archive and interviews with Disney's a.s.sociates. Although I disagree with some of Watts's conclusions, his research is extraordinary. Richard Schickel's The Disney Version: The Life, Times, Art, and Commerce of Walt Disney The Disney Version: The Life, Times, Art, and Commerce of Walt Disney (New York: Avon Books, 1968) remains provocative and highly relevant more than three decades after its publication. Leonard Mosley's (New York: Avon Books, 1968) remains provocative and highly relevant more than three decades after its publication. Leonard Mosley's Disney's World Disney's World (New York: Stein and Day, 1985) and Marc Eliot's (New York: Stein and Day, 1985) and Marc Eliot's Walt Disney: Hollywood's Dark Prince Walt Disney: Hollywood's Dark Prince (London: Andre Deutsch, 1993) offer a counterpoint to the hagiographies sponsored by the Walt Disney Company. My view of American att.i.tudes toward technology was greatly influenced by two books: Leo Marx's (London: Andre Deutsch, 1993) offer a counterpoint to the hagiographies sponsored by the Walt Disney Company. My view of American att.i.tudes toward technology was greatly influenced by two books: Leo Marx's The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970) and David E. Nye's (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970) and David E. Nye's American Technological Sublime American Technological Sublime (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: MIT Press, 1994). (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: MIT Press, 1994).

In the growing literature on marketing to children, three books are worth mentioning for what they (often inadvertently) reveal: Dan S. Acuff with Robert H. Reiher, What Kids Buy and Why: The Psychology of Marketing to Kids What Kids Buy and Why: The Psychology of Marketing to Kids (New York: Free Press, 1997); Gene Del Vecchio, (New York: Free Press, 1997); Gene Del Vecchio, Creating Ever-Cool: A Marketer's Guide to a Kid's Heart Creating Ever-Cool: A Marketer's Guide to a Kid's Heart (Gretna, La.: Pelican Publis.h.i.+ng, 1998); and James U. McNeal, (Gretna, La.: Pelican Publis.h.i.+ng, 1998); and James U. McNeal, Kids As Customers: A Handbook of Marketing to Children Kids As Customers: A Handbook of Marketing to Children (New York: Lexington Books, 1992). Some of the articles in children's marketing journals, such as (New York: Lexington Books, 1992). Some of the articles in children's marketing journals, such as Selling to Kids Selling to Kids and and Entertainment Marketing Letter Entertainment Marketing Letter, are remarkable doc.u.ments for future historians. Two fine reports introduced me to the whole subject of marketing in America's schools: Consumers Union Education Services, "Captive Kids: A Report on Commercial Pressures on Kids at School," Consumers Union, 1998; and Alex Molnar, "Sponsored Schools and Commercialized Cla.s.srooms: Schoolhouse Commercializing Trends in the 1990s," Center for the a.n.a.lysis of Commercialism in Education, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, August 1998. The Center for Science in the Public Interest has been battling for food safety and proper nutrition for more than thirty years. Michael Jacobson's report "Liquid Candy: How Soft Drinks Are Harming Americans' Health," October 1998, is another fine example of the center's work. The corporate memos from the McDonald's advertising campaign were given to me by someone who thought I'd find them "enlightening," and indeed they are.

Page 32 "One of the highlights of my sixty-first birthday": "One of the highlights of my sixty-first birthday": Exhibit, Ray A. Kroc Museum. Exhibit, Ray A. Kroc Museum.33 "to order, control, and keep clean": "to order, control, and keep clean": Schickel, Schickel, Disney Version Disney Version, p. 24.even more famous than Mickey Mouse: According to John Love, Ronald McDonald is the most widely recognized commercial character in the United States. Love, According to John Love, Ronald McDonald is the most widely recognized commercial character in the United States. Love, Behind the Arches Behind the Arches, p. 222.34 "That was where I learned": "That was where I learned": Kroc, Kroc, Grinding It Out Grinding It Out, p. 17."If you believe in it": Voice recording, Ray A. Kroc Museum. Voice recording, Ray A. Kroc Museum.35 "When I saw it": "When I saw it": Kroc, Kroc, Grinding It Out Grinding It Out, p. 71."through the eyes of a salesman": Ibid., pp. 910, 72. Ibid., pp. 910, 72.$100,000 a year in profits: Love, Love, Behind the Arches Behind the Arches, p. 19."This little fellow comes in": Voice recording, Ray A. Kroc Museum. Voice recording, Ray A. Kroc Museum."Dear Walt": Quoted in Leslie Doolittle, "McDonald's Plan Cooked Up Decades Ago," Quoted in Leslie Doolittle, "McDonald's Plan Cooked Up Decades Ago," Orlando Sentinel Orlando Sentinel, January 8, 1998.According to one account: See Boas and Chain, See Boas and Chain, Big Mac Big Mac, p. 25.36 "He was regarded as a strange duck": "He was regarded as a strange duck": Kroc, Kroc, Grinding It Out Grinding It Out, p. 19.describes Walt Disney's efforts: See Watts, See Watts, Magic Kingdom Magic Kingdom, pp. 16474."fun factory": Ibid., p. 167. Ibid., p. 167."Hundreds of young people were being trained": Quoted ibid., p. 170. Quoted ibid., p. 170.37 "Don't forget this": "Don't forget this": Quoted ibid., p. 223. Quoted ibid., p. 223."Look, it is ridiculous to call this an industry": Quoted in Boas and Chain, Quoted in Boas and Chain, Big Mac Big Mac, pp. 1516.gave $250,000 to President Nixon's reelection campaign: For varying interpretations of Kroc's donation, see Kroc, For varying interpretations of Kroc's donation, see Kroc, Grinding It Out Grinding It Out, p. 1912; Love, Behind the Arches Behind the Arches, pp. 3579; Boas and Chain, Big Mac Big Mac, pp. 198206; and Luxenberg, Roadside Empires Roadside Empires, pp. 24648."sons of b.i.t.c.hes": Kroc, Kroc, Grinding It Out Grinding It Out, p. 191.38 more than 90 percent of his studio's output: more than 90 percent of his studio's output: See Watts, See Watts, Magic Kingdom Magic Kingdom, p. 235.39 an early and enthusiastic member of the n.a.z.i Party: an early and enthusiastic member of the n.a.z.i Party: For von Braun's political affiliations, the conditions at Dora-Nordhausen, and the American recruitment of n.a.z.i scientists, I have relied on Tom Bower, For von Braun's political affiliations, the conditions at Dora-Nordhausen, and the American recruitment of n.a.z.i scientists, I have relied on Tom Bower, The Paperclip Conspiracy: The Hunt for n.a.z.i Scientists The Paperclip Conspiracy: The Hunt for n.a.z.i Scientists (Boston: Little, Brown, 1987); Linda Hunt, (Boston: Little, Brown, 1987); Linda Hunt, Secret Agenda: The United States Government, n.a.z.i Scientists, and Project Paperclip, 1945 to 1990 Secret Agenda: The United States Government, n.a.z.i Scientists, and Project Paperclip, 1945 to 1990 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991); Michael J. Neufeld, (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991); Michael J. Neufeld, The Rocket and the Reich: Peenemunde and the Coming of the Ballistic Missile Era The Rocket and the Reich: Peenemunde and the Coming of the Ballistic Missile Era (New York: Free Press, 1995); and Dennis Piszkiewicz, (New York: Free Press, 1995); and Dennis Piszkiewicz, Wernher von Braun: The Man Who Sold the Moon Wernher von Braun: The Man Who Sold the Moon (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1998). (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1998).39 von Braun was giving orders to Disney animators: von Braun was giving orders to Disney animators: For a brief account of Disney and For a brief account of Disney and von Braun von Braun, see the chapter "Disneyland" in Piszkiewicz, von Braun, pp. 8391.another key Tomorrowland adviser: I stumbled upon Heinz Haber's unusual career path while doing research on another project. Haber was a protege of Dr. Hubertus Strughold, the director of the Luftwaffe Inst.i.tute for Aviation Medicine. Strughold later became chief scientist at the U.S. Air Force's Aeros.p.a.ce Medical Division, had a U.S. Air Force library named after him, and was hailed as "the father of U.S. s.p.a.ce medicine." I pieced together Heinz Haber's wartime behavior from the following: Otto Gauer and Heinz Haber, "Man Under Gravity-Free Conditions," in I stumbled upon Heinz Haber's unusual career path while doing research on another project. Haber was a protege of Dr. Hubertus Strughold, the director of the Luftwaffe Inst.i.tute for Aviation Medicine. Strughold later became chief scientist at the U.S. Air Force's Aeros.p.a.ce Medical Division, had a U.S. Air Force library named after him, and was hailed as "the father of U.S. s.p.a.ce medicine." I pieced together Heinz Haber's wartime behavior from the following: Otto Gauer and Heinz Haber, "Man Under Gravity-Free Conditions," in German Aviation Medicine, World War II German Aviation Medicine, World War II, vol. 1 (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: U.S. Air Force, 1950), pp. 64143; Henry G. Armstrong, Heinz Haber, and Hubertus Strughold, "Aero Medical Problems of s.p.a.ce Travel" (panel meeting, School of Aviation Medicine), Journal of Aviation Medicine Journal of Aviation Medicine, December 1949; "Clinical Factors: USAF Aeros.p.a.ce Medicine," in Mae Mills Link, s.p.a.ce Medicine in Project Mercury s.p.a.ce Medicine in Project Mercury (NASA SP-4003, 1965); "Beginnings of s.p.a.ce Medicine," "Zero G," and "Multiple G," in Loyds Swenson, Jr., James M. Grimwood, and Charles C. Alexander, (NASA SP-4003, 1965); "Beginnings of s.p.a.ce Medicine," "Zero G," and "Multiple G," in Loyds Swenson, Jr., James M. Grimwood, and Charles C. Alexander, This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury (NASA SP-4201, 1966); "History of Research in Subgravity and Zero-G at the Air Force Missile Development Center 19481958," in (NASA SP-4201, 1966); "History of Research in Subgravity and Zero-G at the Air Force Missile Development Center 19481958," in History of Research in s.p.a.ce Biology and Biodynamics at the US Air Force Missile Development Center, Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico, 19461958 History of Research in s.p.a.ce Biology and Biodynamics at the US Air Force Missile Development Center, Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico, 19461958 (Historical Division, Air Force Missile Development Center, Holloman Air Force Base). (Historical Division, Air Force Missile Development Center, Holloman Air Force Base).the Luftwaffe Inst.i.tute for Aviation Medicine: Accounts of the concentration camp experiments administered by the Luftwaffe can be found in Bower, Accounts of the concentration camp experiments administered by the Luftwaffe can be found in Bower, Paperclip Conspiracy Paperclip Conspiracy, pp. 21432, and Hunt, Secret Agenda Secret Agenda, pp. 7893.When the Eisenhower administration asked Walt Disney: See Mark Langer, "Disney's Atomic Fleet," See Mark Langer, "Disney's Atomic Fleet," Animation World Magazine Animation World Magazine, April 1998.a popular children's book: Heinz Haber, Heinz Haber, The Walt Disney Story of Our Friend the Atom The Walt Disney Story of Our Friend the Atom (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1956). (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1956).40 Disney had signed seventy licensing deals: Disney had signed seventy licensing deals: See Watts, See Watts, Magic Kingdom Magic Kingdom, pp. 16162.41 "A child who loves our TV commercials": "A child who loves our TV commercials": Kroc, Kroc, Grinding It Out Grinding It Out, p. 114.An ad agency designed the outfit: For the story of Willard Scott and Ronald Mc-Donald, see Love, For the story of Willard Scott and Ronald Mc-Donald, see Love, Behind the Arches Behind the Arches, pp. 21822, 24445."If they were drowning to death": Quoted in Penny Moser, "The McDonald's Mystique," Quoted in Penny Moser, "The McDonald's Mystique," Fortune Fortune, July 4, 1988.42 park, tentatively called Western World: park, ten