History of Free Thought in Reference to The Christian Religion Part 27

Note 26. p. 196. The Works Of Conyers Middleton.

Dr. Conyers Middleton lived from 1683 to 1750. In 1749 he published _A Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers of the Early Church_; "by which it is shown that we have no sufficient reason to believe, upon the authority of the primitive fathers, that any such powers were continued to the church after the days of the apostles." He was attacked by Dodwell, Church, and Chapman, who described the work as discrediting miracles. The object of it was to place the church in the predicament of denying altogether the authority of the fathers, or else of admitting the truth of the Romish doctrine of miracles. Gibbon, when young, chose the latter horn of the dilemma. A list of Middleton's works in chronological order will be found in vol. i. of his _Miscellaneous Works_ (1752). The one which created disputes in theology besides the above was, _An Anonymous Letter to Waterland_, 1731, in reference to his reply to Tindal's work; which was answered by Bishop Pearce. His posthumous work on _The Variations or Inconsistencies which are found among the Four Evangelists_, (Works, vol.

ii. p. 22); his essay on _The Allegorical Interpretation of the Creation and Fall_ (ii. 122); and his criticism in 1750 on bishop Sherlock's _Discourses on Prophecy_, may cause Middleton to be regarded as a rationalist. See his Works, ii. 24, 131, and iii. 183.

Lecture VI.

Note 27. p. 213. On Pietism In Germany In The Seventeenth Century.

The person who commenced the religious movement afterwards called Pietism, was John Arndt (1555-1621), who wrote _The True Christian_, a work as useful religiously, as Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_, or Doddridge's _Religion in the Soul_.

Spener followed (1635-1705). The private religious meetings which he established about 1675, _Collegia Pietatis_, were the origin of the application of the name Pietism to the movement. One of his pupils was the saintly A. H. Francke, whose memoir was translated 1837. Paul Gerhardt, the well known author of the German hymns, also belonged to the same party. The university of Halle became the home of Pietism; and the orphan-house established in that town was renowned over Europe. The opposition of the old Lutheran party of other parts of Germany produced controversies which continued till about 1720; for an account of which, see Weismann, _Mem. Eccl. Hist. Sacr._ 1745, p. 1018 seq.

Pietism propagated its influence by means of Bengel in Wurtemburg and the university of Tubingen, and in Moravia through Zinzendorf. Arnold and Thomasius belonged to this party at the beginning of the eighteenth century. tinger at Tubingen, Crusius at Leipsic, and, to a certain extent, Buddeus also, partook of the spirit of Pietism. It manifested a tendency to religious isolation; and in its nature combined the a.n.a.logous movements subsequently carried out in England by Wesley and by Simeon respectively.

A brief account of it is given in Hase's _Church History_, -- 409: and for a fuller account, see Schrockh, _Chr. Kirchengesch._ vol. viii. pp.

255-91; Pusey on _German Theology_, part i. (67-113); part. ii. ch. x; Amand Saintes, _Crit. Hist. of Rationalism_, E. T. ch. vii. Spener's character and life may be seen in Canstein's memoir of him; and in Weismann, pp. 966-72. A philosophical view of Pietism, as a necessary stage in the development of German religious life, is given by Dorner in the _Studien und Kritiken_, 1840, part ii. 137, _Ueber den Pietismus_.

Kahnis, who himself quotes it, (_Hist. of Germ. Prot._) E. T. p. 102, regards Pietism as ministering indirectly to rationalism; much in the same way as bishop Fitzgerald criticised the similar evangelical movement of England, _Aids to Faith_, p. 49, &c.

Note 28. p. 224. Cla.s.sification Of Schools Of Poetry In Germany.

The materials for understanding the awakening of literary tastes in the last century in Germany, through Lessing's influence, are furnished by Schlosser, _History of the Eighteenth Century_. See vol. i. ch. iii. E. T.

for the period from the Pietists to Lessing; and ch. v. in reference to the Deutsche Bibliothek, and also vol. ii. ch. ii. -- 3. See also Vilmar's _History of German Literature_ (translated and abridged by Metcalfe).

It may facilitate clearness to name the cla.s.sification of schools of German poetry and taste, which is given in the last-named work. They are divided into five cla.s.ses: viz. I. that which was antecedent to Lessing, which is subdivided into (1) the Saxon school of Gottsched; and (2) the Swiss school of Bodmer, and of Wieland in his early manner; which was connected with the Gottingen school of Haller, Hagedorn, and Klopstock, together with the s...o...b..rgs and Voss. II. Lessing, and writers influenced by him, such as (1) Kleist and the Prussian group; (2) Wieland in his second manner, and J. Paul Richter; (3) Kotzebue, who was a mixture of Wieland and Lessing. In these two periods Klopstock, Wieland, and Lessing, were the intellectual triumvirs. III. The "Sturm und Drang" period; the Weimar school with its second literary triumvirate, Herder, Goethe, Schiller. IV. The later schools: (1) the romantic, viz. the two Schlegels, Novalis, Tieck, Uhland, Fouque; (2) the patriotic of the liberation wars, Arndt and Koerner. V. The modern school of disappointment and uneasy reaction against the absolute government, H. Heine and Grun.

It is an interesting psychological problem to trace the close a.n.a.logy between the schools of poetical taste and the corresponding character in the contemporary criticism of ancient literature, the speculative philosophy, and the theology.

Note 29. p. 225. The Wolfenb.u.t.tel Fragments.

It has been stated in the text that these were Fragments, which Lessing published in 1774 and the following years, of a larger work which he professed to have found in the library of Wolfenb.u.t.tel, where he was librarian. They were published in the third of the series of works, _Beitrage zur Geschichte und Literatur aus den Schatzen der Herzoglichen Bibliothekzu Wolfenb.u.t.tel_, under the t.i.tle, _Fragmente Eines Ungenannten Herausgegeben von G. E. Lessing_.

After Lessing's death, C. A. E. Schmidt published further Fragments, under the t.i.tle _Uebrige noch Ungedruckte Werke des Wolfenb.u.t.telschen Fragmentisten. Ein Nachla.s.s von G. E. Lessing_.

The authors.h.i.+p of the Fragments was suspected at the time by Hamann; but it remained generally unknown, and became as great a secret as the authors.h.i.+p of the Letters of Junius, until 1827, when the question was discussed by Gurlitt in the _Leipziger Literatur-Zeitung_, No. 55, and proof was offered that the author was Reimarus of Hamburg.

The result of this and subsequent investigations is as follows. The original work of Reimarus, from which the Fragments were taken, remains in MS. in the public library of Hamburg. It was ent.i.tled _Apologie oder Schutz-Schrift fur die vernunftigen Verehrer Gottes_. When written, it was shown only to intimate friends. Lessing was allowed to take a copy, and showed the MS. to Mendelssohn in 1771. Lessing wished to publish it entire; but the censors.h.i.+p would not give the imprimatur. Consequently it came out in fragments among the series of contributions from the Wolfenb.u.t.tel library, which were free from the censors.h.i.+p. The pretended discovery of them in the library was a mere excuse; and there is proof in Lessing's remains that he admitted the fact. See the statement of these facts in _Lessing's Leben_, by Guhrauer, (of which, vol. i. is by Danzel; vol. ii. by Guhrauer,) vol. ii. b. iii. ch. iv. p. 133, note 3, and b. iv.

p. 141.(1067)

Several writers, subsequently to Gurlitt's examination of the question of authors.h.i.+p, have written, either on the question of the authors.h.i.+p of the Fragments, or on the contents of the larger work from which they are selections. In the _Zeitschrift fur die Historische Theologie for 1839_, part iv. is an article composed from W. Korte's life of Thaer, in reference to the former question. Also Dr. W. Klose examined the original MS. in the Hamburg library, and published an account of it, with considerable extracts, in several of the numbers of the same journal, Niedner's _Zeitschrift_, 1850, (part iv; 1851, part iv; 1852, part iii.) It is in the preface (_Vorbericht_) to the first of these parts that the account of Reimarus's own mental history is given, to which allusion was made in the text of Lecture VI. (p. 225.)

During the last year the question has been made the subject of a monograph by the celebrated Strauss. He had heard of the existence of a copy of the original MS. in private hands at Hamburg, and proceeded to collate it with the view of publication. He found it to differ in some respects from the Fragments published by Lessing and Schmidt. He did not consider the hitherto unpublished parts of the work sufficiently important, either in a literary or historical point of view, to merit publication _in extenso_; but contented himself with stating the results of his study of it in a small work, _H. S. Reimarus und seine Schutz-Schrift, &c._ 1861. It contains a brief account of the literary question of the Fragments, and of Reimarus's life and stand-point; also an a.n.a.lysis of the unpublished parts of the work, written with the clearness which characterises all Strauss's didactic works. It would appear from the a.n.a.lysis that the pieces printed by Lessing were not only some of the ablest, but some of the least offensive of the whole work. The concluding pages contain some very interesting remarks, in which Strauss contrasts the criticism of the eighteenth century with that of the present day; the characteristics of the former being, that it charges imposture on the scripture writers; that of the latter, that it admits their honesty, but explains away their statements and opinions by reference to psychological and historical phenomena.

In addition to the sources given above, information is contained in the following works: Schrockh's _Christ Kirchengesch._ vi. 275; Schlosser's _History of the Eighteenth Century_, E. T. vol. ii. 266 seq.; Hagenbach's _Dogmengeschichte_, -- 275 _notes_, (where reference is made to Guhrauer's _Bodin's Heptaplomeres_, 1841, p. 257 seq.); _Conversations-Lexicon_, art.

_Reimarus_; Amand Saintes' _History of Rationalism_, E. T. p. 84; Kahnis, _Id._ p. 145 seq.; K. Schwarz, _Lessing als Theolog_, of which ch. iv. is on the _Fragmenten-streit_; Strauss's _Kleine Schriften_, 1861; Lessing's _Werke_, xii. 508. (ed. Lachmann.)

Note 30. p. 242. Schleiermacher's Early Studies.

It may be interesting to trace more fully the parallel noticed in the text between the development of Plato's thoughts and Schleiermacher's early studies.

Though it is impossible to arrange the dialogues of Plato in the chronological order in which they were composed, so as to be able to study the master in his successive styles, yet several systems of arrangement, founded on different principles, seem to coincide so far as to render it probable that Plato's great theory of ideas or forms grew upon him through these stages: viz. (1) it was viewed as a fact of mind, an innate conception of forms (e.g. in Meno); (2) as useful in guiding perplexed minds to truth, and sifting philosophical doctrines by means of the dialectical process, e.g. in the Theaetetus and Parmenides; (3) as representing an objective reality, a true cause in nature external to the mind, as well as an hypothesis in science (e.g. in the Republic); (4) as having a mystical connexion with divinity, and furnis.h.i.+ng a cosmogony, Whether this pa.s.sage, from the subjective conception to the objective reality, be really or only logically the order of development in Plato's ideal theory, it is clear that the growth of Schleiermacher's mind admits of comparison with this supposed order of development in Plato; though there is a slight variation in the steps of the process. Schleiermacher went through three stages, (1) the philosophy of Jacobi, (2) of Fichte, and probably (3) of Sch.e.l.ling; from which he learned respectively, (1) to have faith in our intuitions, (2) to construe the outward by the inward, (3) to believe in the power of the mind to pa.s.s beyond the inward, and apprehend absolute truth. If the resemblance to the above account of Plato were exactly perfect, the love of a philosophy like Fichte's ought to have preceded that of Jacobi. Sch.e.l.ling's influence, it ought to be noted, is very slight on Schleiermacher, compared with that of the others. The traces of it which appear are perhaps resolvable into a similarity to Jacobi's system.

Note 31. p. 244. Schleiermacher's Theological Works.

The theological works of Schleiermacher are doctrinal, critical, and pastoral. The latter consist chiefly of the sermons which he delivered in Berlin. The critical works are mentioned in a footnote to p. 248; but it may be useful to give a brief notice of his doctrinal works, of which some are referred to in the text.

The earliest was the _Reden uber die Religion an die Gebildeten unter ihren Verachtern_, 1799, (Discourses on Religion addressed to the educated among its despisers,) which ought not to be read in earlier editions than the fourth (1829), the notes of which contain explanations. The object of these discourses was to direct attention away from the study of religion in its outward manifestations, to its inward essence; which he showed to lie neither in knowledge nor in action, but in feeling. See especially Discourse II. _Uber das Wesen der Religion_. For the effect which the discourses created, see Neanders testimony, quoted by Kahnis, _Hist. of Prot._ E. T. p. 208.

The works which succeeded the _Reden_ were the following: in 1800, the _Monologen_ (Soliloquies); in 1803, _Grundlinien einer Kritik der bisherigen Sittenlehre_ (Critique on previous Ethical teaching); in 1806, _Die Weinachtsfeier_ (Christmas Eve); in 1811, the _Kurze Darstellung des Theologischen Studiums_ (Plan of Theological Study;-lately translated), which gave rise to the branch now common in German universities, called _Theologische Encyclopadie_;(1068) in 1821, _Der Christliche Glaube nach den Grundsatzen der Evangelischen Kirche_ (the Christian Faith on the principles of the Evangelical Church), which was improved in the subsequent editions.

As the _Reden_ breathed the spirit of Jacobi, the _Monologen_ breathed that of Fichte. They study the ethical, as the former the religious side of man; the action of the personal will as distinct from the feelings of dependence. The dialogue of the _Weihnachtsfeier_ showed Christ as the means of effecting that oneness with the absolute which the two former works had shown to be necessary.

In the _Glaubens-lehre_, Schleiermacher gives a general view of dogmatic theology, viewed from the psychological side, i.e. its appropriation by the Christian consciousness. He studies (1) man's consciousness of G.o.d, prior to experience of the opposition of sin and grace; next, after being aware of such an opposition, as (2) the subject of sin, and (3) the subject of grace; or, in theological language, the states of innocence, of sin, and of grace. Each of these is subdivided in spirit, even when not in form, in a threefold manner; describing respectively the condition of man, the attributes of G.o.d, and the const.i.tution of the world, as they relate to the above three named states. The subjective and psychological character of the inquiry is seen in the fact, that when treating the second of these subdivisions,-the Divine attributes,-he does not study them as peculiarities of G.o.d's nature, but as modifications of the mode in which we refer to G.o.d our own feeling of dependence. This subjective tendency ill.u.s.trates the influence of Fichte and Jacobi on Schleiemiacher.

The contrast is an interesting one between a dogmatic treatise of the schoolmen, of the reformers, and of Schleiermacher. The first commences with the Deity and his attributes, and pa.s.ses to man: the second generally begins with the rule of faith, the Bible; and then, pa.s.sing to the Deity, proceeds mainly after the scholastic fas.h.i.+on: the third begins and ends with the human consciousness, and its contents.

Note 32. p. 252. On Some German Critical Theologians. (de Wette, Ewald, Etc.)

Some of the theologians of the critical school which is described in the text, deserve a more full notice than was possible in the foot-notes to the Lecture.

De Wette (1780-1849) was educated at Jena, under Griesbach. He was made Professor at Berlin in 1810, but was deprived in 1819, in consequence of the Prussian government having opened a letter of condolence written by him to the mother of Sand, the a.s.sa.s.sin of the dramatist Kotzebue. (For the history of the excited state of the German students at this time, see K. Raumer's _Padagogik_, vol. iv. translated.) In 1826 he was made Professor at Basle. An interesting life of him is given in the _Bibliotheca Sacra_ for 1850. His most important works are, his _Einleitung ins Alt. und Neu. Test.; Lehrbuch der Dogmatik_, 1819; his New Translation of the Bible (1839); and Commentaries on several parts of Scripture. On his doctrinal views see Kahnis, p. 231 seq. He is said to have been a man of sweet and amiable character; and indeed he appears to be so in his writings. It has been remarked, as a proof of his singular fairness, that he not only candidly states the opinions of an opponent, but even sometimes confesses his inability fully to refute them.

Along with De Wette ought to be cla.s.sed a great number of distinguished men, most of whom wrote parts of the Commentary which he designed under the name of _Exegetisches Handbuch_. They were mostly critics rather than writers on doctrine, and represent the modified state of thought of his later life; but still maintain, for the most part, his critical stand-point in reference to the scriptures; and therefore, though contemporary with the new Tubingen and other schools described in Lecture VII, which have arisen since Strauss's criticism, in that which we called the third period of our sketch, they really belong to the school of critics of the older or second period. Such are, or were, Gesenius, k.n.o.bel, Hirzel, Hitzig, Credner, Tuch, E. Meier, Hupfeld, and Stuhelin.

See Am. Saintes, part ii. ch. xi.

H. Ewald, born 1803, became Professor at Gottingen 1831. In 1837 he was one of the seven professors who sacrificed their position when the new king of Hanover, Ernest, interfered with the const.i.tution. From 1838 to 1848 he was professor at Tubingen: since 1848 at Gottingen. His works are partly on the oriental languages, and partly on theology. Among the latter the chief are, _Die Poetischen Bucher des Alten Test._, 1835; _Die Propheten des Alten Bundes_, 1840; and the _Geschichte des Volkes Israel_, 1842-50; a work which, whatever may be thought of the theological aspects of it, if regarded in respect of scholars.h.i.+p, poetic appreciation, and grandeur of generalization, is one of the most remarkable books ever produced even in Germany. (Renan has based upon it the most brilliant of his essays, ess. ii. in the _Etudes d'Hist. Religieuse_.) His works on the New Testament are partly directed against the views of the new Tubingen school. He differs from the older critical school of De Wette, in applying himself more exclusively to the Semitic literature; and cannot be cla.s.sed with them in any other way than that he represents the effort of independent criticism, linguistic and historic; removed from the dogmatic school, and also from the later forms of critical.