Primitive Man Part 36

It is altogether a different matter with respect to the javelins, a tolerably large number of which have been found in the lacustrine settlements of La Tene. They are simple socketed heads (fig. 251), terminating in a laurel-leaf shape, about 4 to 5 inches in length.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 251.--Head of a Javelin, found in the Lacustrine Settlement of La Tene (Neuchatel).]

It appears from experiments ordered by the Emperor of the French, that these javelins could only have been used as missile weapons, and that they were thrown, not by the hand merely grasping the shaft (which would be impossible to do effectually on account of their light weight), but by means of a cord or thong, which was designated among the Romans by the name of _amentum_. These experiments have shown that a dart which could be thrown only 65 feet with the hand, might be cast four times that distance by the aid of the _amentum_. There probably existed among the Gauls certain military corps who practised the use of the _amentum_, that is to say, the management of _thonged javelins_, and threw this javelin in the same way as other warriors threw stones by means of a sling. This conclusion, which has been drawn by M. Desor, seems to us a very just one.

Javelins of the preceding type are very common in the trenches of Alise.

In this neighbourhood a large number of iron arrows have also been found which have never been met with in the lacustrine settlement of La Tene.

War was not the only purpose for which these javelins were used by the men of the iron epoch. Hunting, too, was carried on by means of these missile weapons. The bow and the thonged javelin const.i.tuted the hunting weapons of this epoch. We have depicted this in the accompanying plate, which represents _the chase during the iron epoch_.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 252.--The Chase during the Iron Epoch.]

Next to the weapons come the implements. We will, in the first place, mention the hatchets (fig. 253). They are larger, more solid, and have a wider cutting edge than those used in the bronze epoch; wings were no longer in use, only a square-shaped socket into which was fitted a wooden handle, probably made with an elbow.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 253.--Square-socketed Iron Hatchet, found in one of the Lakes of Switzerland.]

The sickles (fig. 254) are likewise larger and also more simple than those of the bronze epoch; there are neither designs nor ornaments of any kind on them.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 254.--Sickle.]

With the pruning-bills or sickles we must cla.s.s the regular scythes (fig. 255) with stems for handling, two specimens of which have been discovered in the lake settlement of the Tene. Their length is about 14 inches, that is, about one-third as large as the scythes used by the Swiss harvest-men of the present day. One important inference is drawn from the existence of these scythes; it is, that at the commencement of the iron epoch men were in the habit of storing up a provision of hay, and must consequently have reared cattle.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 255.--Scythe, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland.]

The iron fittings at the ends of the boat-hooks used by the boatmen on the lake are frequently found at La Tene; they terminate in a quadrangular pyramid or in a cone (fig. 256). Some still contain the end of the wooden pole, which was attached to it by means of a nail.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 256.--Iron Point of Boat-hook, used by the Swiss Boatmen during the Iron Epoch.]

Next in order to these objects, we must mention the horses' bits and shoes; the first being very simply constructed so as to last for a very long period of time. They were composed of a short piece of iron chain (fig. 257), which was placed in the horse's mouth, and terminated at each end in a ring to which the reins were attached.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 257.--Horse's Bit, found in the Lake of Neuchatel.]

The _fibulae_ (fig. 258), or clasps for cloaks, are especially calculated to attract attention in the cla.s.s of ornamental objects; they are very elegant and diversified in their shapes, their dimensions varying from 2-1/2 to 5 inches. They are all formed of a pin in communication with a twisted spring bent in various ways. They are provided with a sheath to hold the end of the brooch pin, so as to avoid any danger of p.r.i.c.king. A large number of them are in an excellent state of preservation, and might well be used at the present day.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 258.--_Fibula_, or Iron Brooch, found in the Lake of Neuchatel.]

These brooches, which we have already called attention to when speaking of the tombs of Hallstadt, were also used by the Etruscans and the Romans; their existence in the pre-historic tombs tends to prove that, like the above-named nations, the Swiss and Germans wore the toga or mantle. These _fibulae_ have a peculiar character, and it is impossible to confuse them with the Roman _fibulae_. They are, however, similar in every way to those which have been found at Alise.

There have also been found in the Swiss lakes, along with the _fibulae_, a number of rings, the use of which is still problematical. Some are flat and others chiselled in various ways. It is thought that some of them must have been used as buckles for soldiers' sword-belts (fig.

259); but there are others which do not afford any countenance to this explanation. Neither can they be looked on as bracelets; for most of them are too small for any such purpose. Some show numerous cuts at regular intervals all round their circ.u.mference; this fact has given rise to the supposition that they might perhaps have served as a kind of money.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 259.--Iron Buckle for a Sword-belt, found in the Lake of Neuchatel.]

In the lake-settlement of La Tene (Lake of Neuchatel), iron pincers have also been found (fig. 260), which were doubtless used for pulling out hair, and are of very perfect workmans.h.i.+p; also scissors with a spring (fig. 261), the two legs being made in one piece, and some very thin blades (fig. 262), which must have been razors.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 260.--Iron Pincers, found in the Lake of Neuchatel.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 261.--Iron Spring-Scissors, found in the Lake of Neuchatel.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 262.--Razor.]

The specimens of pottery belonging to this date do not testify to any real progress having been made beyond the workmans.h.i.+p of the bronze epoch; the clay is still badly baked, and of a darkish colour. It certainly is the case, that along with these remains a quant.i.ty of fragments of vessels have been picked up, and even entire vessels, which have been made by the help of the potter's wheel and baked in an oven, and consequently present the red colour usual in modern earthenware. But archaeologists are of opinion that this cla.s.s of pottery does not date back beyond the Roman epoch; and this opinion would seem to be confirmed by the existence, in the midst of the piles at the settlement of La Tene, of a ma.s.s of tiles, evidently of Roman origin. The conclusion to be drawn from these facts is, that many of the pile-works in the Swiss lakes continued to be occupied when the country was under the Roman rule.

One of the characteristics of the iron epoch is, as we have before stated, the appearance of coin or money. In 1864, M. Desor recovered from the Lake of La Tene five coins of unquestionable Gallic origin.

They are of bronze, and bear on one side the figure of the horned horse, and on the other a human profile. In fig. 232, we gave a representation of these curious specimens of coin found by M. Desor in the lacustrine settlements of the Lake of Neuchatel. The marks of the mould still existing on each side show that these coins were cast in a series, and that after the casting the coins were separated from one another by means of the file.

Coins of a similar character have been discovered, as we before observed, at Tiefenau, near Berne, with others bearing the effigy of Diana and Apollo, and the imprint of _Ma.s.silia_, The latter date from the foundation of Ma.r.s.eilles, and could not, therefore, be anterior to the sixth century before the Christian era; it is probable that those discovered along with them must be referred to nearly the same epoch.

Such are the relics of instruments, tools, weapons, &c., made of iron and recovered from the lacustrine settlement of La Tene, that is, from the Lake of Neuchatel. We must add that, near Berne, at a spot which is designated by the name of the "Battle-field of Tiefenau," because it appears to have been the theatre of a great conflict between the Helvetians and the Gauls, a hundred swords and spear-heads have been picked up, similar to those found at La Tene; also fragments of coats of mail, rings, _fibulae_, the tires of chariot-wheels, horses' bits, and lastly, Gallic and Ma.r.s.eillaise coins in gold, silver, and bronze. This field of battle appears, therefore, to have been contemporary with the settlement at La Tene.

In addition to these valuable sources of information--La Tene and Tiefenau--Switzerland also possesses _tumuli_ and simple tombs, both const.i.tuting records useful to consult in respect to the iron epoch. But on this point, it must be remarked that it is often difficult, with any degree of security, to connect them with the two preceding sites; and that considerable reserve is recommended in attempting any kind of identification.

Upon the whole, the Iron Age, looking even only to its earliest period, is the date of the beginning of real civilisation among European nations.

Their industrial skill, exercised on the earliest-used materials, such as iron and textile products, furnished all that was required by the usages of life. Commerce was already in a flouris.h.i.+ng state, for it was no longer carried on by the process of barter only. Money, in the shape of coin, the conventional symbol of wealth, came into use during this epoch, and must have singularly facilitated the operations of trade.

Agriculture, too, had advanced as much as it could at this earliest dawn of civilisation. The remains of cereals found in the lake-settlements of Switzerland, added to the iron instruments intended to secure the products of the cultivation of the ground, such as the scythes and sickles which we have previously depicted (figs. 254 and 255), are sufficient to show us that agriculture const.i.tuted at that time the chief wealth of nations. The horse, the a.s.s, the dog, the ox, and the pig, had for long time back been devoted to the service of man, either as auxiliaries in his field-labours, or as additions to his resources in the article of food. Fruit-trees, too, were cultivated in great numbers.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 263.--Agriculture during the Iron Epoch.]

As a matter of fact, we have no acquaintance with any of the iron and bronze instruments which were used by men of the iron epoch in cultivation of the ground. Scythes and sickles are the only agricultural implements which have been discovered. But even these instruments, added to a quant.i.ty of remains of the bones of cattle which have been found in the lacustrine and pal.u.s.trine settlements, are sufficient to prove that the art of cultivating the earth and of extracting produce from its bosom, rendered fertile by practices sanctioned by experience, existed in full vigour among the men who lived during the period immediately preceding historic times.

The plate which accompanies this page is intended to represent in a material form the state of agriculture during the iron epoch. We may notice the corn-harvest being carried on by means of sickles, like those found in the lacustrine settlements of Switzerland. A man is engaged in beating out, with a mere stick, the wheatsheaves in order to thrash out the grain. The grain is then ground in a circular mill, worked by a horizontal handle. This mill is composed of two stones revolving one above the other, and was the subst.i.tute for the rough primitive corn-mill; it subsequently became the mill used by the Romans--the _pistrinum_--at which the slaves were condemned to work.

Indications of an unequivocal character have enabled us to recognise as a fact, that human sacrifices took place among the Helvetians during this period. It is, however, well known, from the accounts of ancient historians, that this barbarous custom existed among the Gauls and various nations in the north of Europe. In a _tumulus_ situated near Lausanne, which contained four cinerary urns, there were also found the skeletons of four young females. Their broken bones testified but too surely to the tortures which had terminated their existence. The remains of their ornaments lay scattered about in every direction, and everything was calculated to lead to the belief that they had been crushed under the ma.s.s of stones which formed the _tumulus_--unhappy victims of a cruel superst.i.tion. Not far from this spot, another _tumulus_ contained twelve skeletons lying in all kinds of unusual postures. It is but too probable that these were the remains of individuals who had all been immolated together on the altar of some supposed implacable divinity.

What was the character of the type of the human race during the iron epoch? It must evidently have been that of the present era. Both the skulls and the bodies of the skeletons found in the tombs of this epoch point to a race of men entirely identical with that of our own days.

We shall not carry on our study of pre-historic mankind to any later date. We have now arrived at an epoch upon which sufficient light has been thrown by oral tradition combined with historical records. The task of the historian begins at the point where the naturalist's investigations come to an end.

FOOTNOTE:

[41] 'Les Sepultures de Saint-Jean de Belleville,' with lithographed plates.

PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA.

PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA.

The development of mankind has, doubtless, been of much the same character in all parts of the world, so that, in whatever quarter of the world man may come under our consideration, he must have pa.s.sed through the same phases of progress ere he arrived at his present state.

Everywhere, man must have had his Stone Age, his Bronze Epoch, and his Iron Epoch, succeeding one another in the same order which we have ascertained to have existed in Europe. In the sketch which we have drawn of primitive man we have devoted our attention almost entirely to Europe; but the cause simply is, that this part of the world has, up to the present day, been the princ.i.p.al subject of special and attentive studies in this respect. Asia, Africa, and America can scarcely be said to have been explored in reference to the antiquity of our species; but it is probable that the facts which have been brought to light in Europe, would be almost identically reproduced in other parts of the world.