The Prehistoric World or Vanished races Part 30

(74) Peet: "The Mound Builders."

(75) Peet's "Mound Builders:" "If the reader will compare some of these last cuts with that of the fortified camp at Cissbury, Eng., p. 183, he will see how similar this last work is to those just mentioned. Perhaps the real lesson to be learned is that rude people, whether Indians, Mound Builders, or Celts, resorted to about the same method of defense."

(76) "Antiquarian Research," p. 89.

(77) Conant's "Footprints of Vanished Races," p. 15, _et seq._ Mr. Conant refers to Mr. Pidgeon's work in such a way as to give the impression that he was convinced of the genuineness of his account.

(78) "Traditions of Decodah," p. 89, _et seq._ (79) "Antiquarian Research," p. 190.

(80) "The American Indian, so far as known, without the exception of a single tribe, wors.h.i.+ped the sun." Carr's "Mounds of the Mississippi Valley," p. 56.

(81) Conant's "Footprints of Vanished Races," p. 60.

(82) Ibid., p. 32. If the explorers are really satisfied this was a walled town, it ought to throw some light on the inclosures in the Ohio Valley.

(83) Conant's "Footprints of Vanished Races," p. 35.

(84) Conant's "Footprints of Vanished Races," p. 77.

(85) Vol. III, p. 290, _et seq._ (86) Morgan's "Ancient Society," p. 11.

(87) "Ancient Monuments," p. 210; also Peet: "The Mound Builders." "Their relics are marked by a peculiar finish."

(88) Rau's "Anthropological Research."

(89) "Proceedings Am. Antiq. Society," April, 1877, p. 61.

(90) "Smithsonian Contribution to Knowledge," Vol. XIII.

(91) Abbott's "Primitive Industry," p. 315.

(92) "Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology," 1880-1, p. 123, _et seq._ (93) In the "Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology," for 1880-1, Mr. Henshaw has very fully discussed these mound-pipes, and shown that Messrs. Squier and Davis wore mistaken in a number of their identifications of the animal forms. He concludes there "are no representations of birds or animals not indigenous to the Mississippi Valley."

(94) The recent discoveries by Putnam and Metz, in the Altar-mounds in the Little Miami Valley, have brought to light many interesting and important sculptures in stone and terra-cotta, which, as works of art, are in some respects superior to those from the Scioto Valley, but as they have not yet been figured, we can only refer to them here in this brief note.

(95) "Number Eight," Mound City, near Chillicothe, Ohio.

"Ancient Monuments," p. 152.

(96) Rau: "Anthropological Subjects," p. 130.

(97) Morgan's "Ancient Society," p. 12.

(98) _American Antiquarian,_ 1879, p. 64.

(99) McAdams: _American Antiquarian,_ 1880, p. 140.

(100) "Smithsonian Report," 1866. We have gathered these points for comparison from Dr. Rau's article in that report.

(101) Bella Hubbard, _American Antiquarian,_ 1876, p. 219.

(102) Foster's "Prehistoric Races," p. 346.

Chapter XI

THE PUEBLO COUNTRY.<1>

Description of the Pueblo Country--Historical outline--Description of Zuni--Definition of a Pueblo--Old Zuni--Inscription Rock--Pueblo of Jemez--Historical notice of Pecos--Description of the Moqui tribes--The Estufa--Description of the San Juan country--Aztec Springs--In the Canyon of the McElmo--The Ruins of the Rio Mancos--On Hovenweep Creek--Description of a Cliff-house--Cliff Town--Cave houses--Ruins on the San Juan--Cave Town--The Significance of Cliff-houses--Moqui traditions--Ruins in Northern New Mexico--Ruins in the Chaco Canyon--Pueblo Bonito--Ruins in South-western Arizona--The Rio Verde Valley--Casa Grande--Ruins on the Gila--Culture of the Pueblo Tribes--Their Pottery--Superiority of the Ancient pottery--Conclusion.

We have hitherto been describing people and tribes that have completely vanished. We have peered into the mysterious past and sought as best we could to conjure back the scenes of many years ago. The line between the known and the unknown, between the historic and prehistoric, is not far removed from us in the new world. Not yet four centuries have pa.s.sed since the veil was lifted, and America, with her savage tribes of the North, and her rude civilization of the South, was revealed to the wondering eyes of Europe. But with a knowledge of this new land came also wondrous stories of wealth, and in consequence an army of adventurers were soon on her sh.o.r.es. Then follows a short period of war and conquest. The Indian race could not withstand the whites. European civilization, transplanted to America, has thriven. But whatever advance the native tribes have made since the discovery, has been by reason of contact with the whites.

Map of Pueblo Country.-----------

There was no single birthplace of American culture. Advance took place wherever the climate was mild and the soil fertile, and thus an abundant supply of food could be obtained. One such locality was the valley of the San Juan, in what is now the southwestern part of the United States. It is quite allowable to suppose that here the mild climate and bountiful soil suggested agriculture, and with a knowledge of this, rude though it was, a beginning was made in a culture which subsequently excited the admiration of the Spaniards. However that may be, we know this section contains abundant ruins of former inhabitants. And yet again we find in this same country the remnants of this former people, doubtless living much the same sort of life as did their forefathers.

American scholars, with the best of reason, think this section affords the best vantage ground from which to study the question of native American culture. It presents us not only with ruins of past greatness, but in the inhabited pueblos, gives us a picture of primitive times, and invites us, by a careful study of their inst.i.tutions, to become acquainted with primitive society.

Travelers and explorers describe the scenery of the Pueblo country as a very peculiar one. It is bleak without being absolutely barren. The great mountain chains form picturesque profiles, which in a measure compensate for the lack of vegetation. No country on the face of the globe bears such testimony to the power of running water to wear away the surface. The rivers commenced by wearing down great canyons. They occur here on a grand scale. The canyon of the Colorado River, having a length of two hundred miles, and through the whole, nearly vertical walls of rock, three to six thousand feet in height. Nearly all the tributary streams of the Colorado empty into it by means of gorges nearly as profound. What is true of the Colorado is true, though in a lesser degree of the Rio Grande and of the Pecos, as only portions of these streams are canyon-born. But, besides digging out these canyons, the entire surface of the country has in places been removed to the depth of several hundred feet, leaving large extent of table-lands, called mesas, with generally steep, or even precipitous, sides, standing isolated here and there.

Though thus bearing evidence of more extended rainfall, and of the action of water in the past, it is essentially an arid country now.

Most of the minor water-courses laid down on the map are dry half of the year, or have but scattered pools of water; so a description of the surface of the country would tell us of deep river valleys, in many cases narrow and running through rocky beds, in which case we call them canyons; in other cases very wide, but having generally precipitous sides; the country often mountainous and great stretches of table-land, but generally dry and desolate, except in the immediate vicinity of rivers. The river valleys themselves are generally very fertile.

Such is the country where we are to investigate native American culture.

The history of the country since its first occupation by the Spaniards is not devoid of interest. It did not take the Indians of Mexico long to learn that what the Spaniards most prized was gold, and that the surest way to curry favor with them was to relate to them exaggerated stories of wonderful wealth to be gained in distant provinces. About 1530 the viceroy of New Spain (Mexico) learned from an Indian slave of seven great cities somewhere to the north; and of their wealth it was said they had streets exclusively occupied by workers in gold and silver.

Though expeditions to the northern provinces of Mexico speedily dispelled the illusions in regard to them, the wonderful story of the Seven Cities flitted further north. Six years later these stories were invested with new life by the arrival in Mexico of Cabeza De Vaca and three companions. The story of their remarkable wanderings reads like an extract from a work of fiction. They were members of the unfortunate Spanish expeditions to the coast of Florida in 1528. After the s.h.i.+pwreck and final overthrow of the expedition, these four men had wandered from somewhere on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, first north, and then west, pa.s.sing through, probably, portions of Texas and New Mexico, until finally they were so fortunate as to meet with their own countrymen near Culiacan, in Mexico. The story they had to tell fell on willing ears.

They stated to the viceroy that they had carefully observed the country through which they had pa.s.sed, and had been told of great and powerful cities containing houses of four and five stories, with the usual accompaniments of great wealth.

The next incident was the journey of three Franciscan friars and a negro (who, by the way, had been with De Vaca in his wanderings), sent out by the Governor Coronado, with orders to return and report to him all they could learn by personal observation of the Seven Cities. This expedition did not accomplish much. Arriving near Cibola (the Spanish name for the country of the Seven Cities), they sent the negro on ahead to gain the good will of the Indians. Instead of this, he was killed by them. On hearing which, the monks contented themselves with gazing on the pueblo (which they describe as "more considerable than Mexico") from a safe distance, and then hurriedly returned to Culiacan. They gave Coronado a most glowing account of all they had discovered.

Coronado now thought the time had come for decisive action. Accordingly, with the viceroy's permission, he organized his forces, and in 1540 set out on his memorable march in search of the Seven Cities of Cibola. We do not propose to give in detail the series of conquests beginning with this expedition and finally ending with the subjection of New Mexico in 1598. It is needless to say that the Spanish forces found no cities teeming with wealth. What they did find was a country much the same as at present. The cities were the communal houses, or combination of houses, known as pueblos. The pueblo of Zuni is the remaining one of the mystical seven. The ruins of at least six other pueblos are known to be in the immediate vicinity.<2>

This historical account, short and imperfect as it is, introduces us to a most interesting people. If we would know more of them we can not do better than to adopt the advice of Hosta, ex governor of Jemez, to Dr.

Loew: "If you wish to see what a great people we once were you must go upon the mesas and into the canyons of the vicinity, where ruins of our forefathers are numerous."

One of the most important pueblos yet remaining inhabited, and one of the first that Coronado encountered in his expedition, is Zuni.

The present pueblo is considered as the remaining one of the Seven Cities--at least, by the majority of Americanists. Whipple describes Zuni as follows: "Treading an opening between rocky bluffs,... we entered the valley, several miles in width, which leads to Zuni. The soil seemed light, but where cultivated it produced fine crops without the aid of irrigation.... Within the valley appeared occasional towers, where herders and, laborers watch to prevent a surprise from Apaches.

Near the center of this apparent plain stood, upon an eminence, the compact city of Zuni.<3> By its side flowed the river which bears the same name. It is now but a rivulet of humble dimensions, though sometimes said to be a large stream.... Pa.s.sing beneath an arch, we entered a court,... entirely surrounded by houses of several receding stories, which were attained by means of ladders loading from one to another.... From the top the pueblo reminds one of an immense ant-hill, from its similar form and dense population.... Going down from its outer side into the street, we encounter five stories of descent."<4>

In order to prevent confusion, we will state that a pueblo, which is the Spanish name for these old Indian towns, may be one of several different types. A common form of village consists of but one or two, seldom three, large buildings, so arranged as to surround an interior court.

Sometimes there is but one large building, which is nearly in the shape of a half circle; instead of being really circular, it has a number of different sides. In some cases a village consists of a number of these large houses irregularly arranged. But the tendency is always to inclose a square.<5>

In the modern villages the buildings forming the square do not meet, but in some cases are connected by bridges or covered gangways, and in some instances the houses project over the streets below, which, being narrow, are thus given an underground appearance.<6>

Ill.u.s.tration of Ground Plan and End View.------------

The buildings, or communal houses, for one house contained sometimes five hundred rooms, are generally from three to four hundred feet long and about one hundred and fifty feet in width at the base. The lower story is divided by cross-walls into a ma.s.s of cell-like rooms, as shown in the ill.u.s.trations which represents the ground plan of a pueblo having four ranges of rooms. Each story in height has one less range of rooms, so that, looking directly at the end of this building, it would present the appearance shown by this cut: The only means of getting from one terrace to the other is by the aid of ladders. In some cases these terraces run from both sides of the building; in others they face the inclosed s.p.a.ce; and in others still they face outside. Most of the inhabited pueblos are built of adobe--that is, sun-dried bricks. The majority of the ancient ruins were built of stone set in adobe mortar.

With this digression, we will now return to Zuni.

Ill.u.s.tration of Old Zuni.------------

Ruins testifying to the former greatness of these people are scattered around them. Three miles to the east of the present pueblo of Zuni, on the bluff seen in the cut, are the ruins of a larger pueblo, which is called Old Zuni. Mr. Whipple, who explored this field of ruins, thus describes his visit: "The projecting summit of the cliffs seemed inaccessible.... We followed a trail which, with great labor, had been hammered out from seam to seam of the rocks along the side of the precipice. At various points of the ascent, where a projecting rock permitted, were barricades of stone walls, from which the old man<7> told us they had hurled rocks upon the invading Spaniards. Having ascended one thousand feet, we found ourselves upon a level surface, covered with thick cedars.... The top of the mesa was of an irregular figure, a mile in width, bounded upon all sides by perpendicular bluffs.... The guide hurried us on half a mile further, where appeared the ruins of a city, indeed. Crumbling walls, from two to twelve feet in height, were crowded together in confused heaps, over several acres of ground.... Upon examining the pueblo, we found the standing walls rested upon ruins of greater antiquity.<8> The primitive masonry, as well as we could judge, must have been about six feet thick. The more recent was not more than a foot or a foot and a half, but the small sandstone blocks had been laid in mud mortar with considerable care."<9>

The descriptions of ruins have so much that is similar that repet.i.tions become tiresome. We will not, therefore, delay much longer with Zuni.

A few miles east of Old Zuni we come to Pescado Springs, near which are the ruins of several pueblos. "This spring bursts from a broken point of the lava bed, and at once becomes a pretty stream, glittering with great numbers of the finny tribe, which gives name to it. The circular wall which once inclosed the fountainhead is now partly broken down. Upon each side, and almost tangent, are ruins of pueblos so ancient that the traditions of present races do not reach them. They are nearly circular in form, and of equal dimension. One measured three hundred and fifteen short paces, about eight hundred feet, in circ.u.mference. They were of stone; but the walls have crumbled, leaving only a heap of rubbish."<10>

Following up this stream, other ruins were found. It seems, then, that in the pueblo of Zuni we have left a pitiful remnant of a numerous people. When the Spaniards first appeared on the scene they were apparently prosperous. The rapid decrease of the Pueblo tribes was owing to several causes. In 1680 they made an attempt to throw off the Spanish yoke. At first this was successful. But inter-tribal warfare at once set in. At this time also the inroads of the Apaches and Navajos became so troublesome that the Pueblo tribes could not successfully cultivate their land. At this time also a succession of dry years set in, and famine was the result. Their customs and manners we will describe in another place. There are many reasons for supposing that the country had been inhabited for a very long period, even before the Spaniards invaded it. Some places must have been even then in ruins, or, if inhabited, it is very strange that the Spanish records do not mention them. Such, for instance, is Inscription Rock, about fifteen miles east of Old Zuni, which the Spaniards must have pa.s.sed when on their way back and forth to Zuni.

Ill.u.s.tration of Inscription Rock.----------

The small mesa here ends with a bold front of white sandstone rock, rising almost vertically two hundred and fifty feet high. This cut gives us a view on the top of the table-rock. We see here the foundations of two old buildings. A deep ravine nearly divides this little plateau into two portions. As we have said, this rises with a bold, precipitous front from the plain. At one place this front is completely covered with inscriptions. Here the Indians, unknown years ago, made their strange hieroglyphics which, presenting to our eyes only a senseless combination of forms of animals and men and meaningless figures, may have conveyed to them knowledge of important events. A great many Spanish inscriptions have also been carved on the rock. Whipple calls attention to the fact that though Spanish inscriptions placed there nearly two hundred years ago, seem but slightly affected by atmospheric action, still some of the Indian hieroglyphics are "almost wiped out by the fingers of time." A number of centuries have probably rolled away since they were inscribed.

It may be interesting to know the reading of some of these old inscriptions. A translation of one of the earliest and longest is here given, with the exception of a few words which could not be made out: "Bartolome Narrso, Governor and Captain-general of the province of New Mexico, for our lord, the king, pa.s.sed by this place on his return from the pueblo of Zuni, on the 29th of July, of the year 1620, and put them in peace, at their pet.i.tion, asking the favor to become subjects of his majesty, and anew they gave obedience; all of which they did with free consent, knowing it prudent as well as very Christian,... to so distinguished and gallant a soldier, indomitable and famed; we love..."<11>