How France Built Her Cathedrals Part 54

[310] Works of St. Bernard, edited by Mabillon (Paris, 1669-90), tr. by Eales and Hodges (London, 1889), 4 vols.; E. Vacandard, _Vie de Saint Bernard_ (Paris, Lecoffre, 1895), 2 vols.; other studies of the saint, by Eales (London, 1890) and R. P. Ratisbonne; De Dion, _etude sur les eglises de l'ordre de Citeaux_; Arbois de Jubainville, _etude sur l'etat interieur des abbayes cisterciennes et princ.i.p.alement de Clairvaux au XII siecle_ (Paris, 1858); Lucien Begule, _L'abbaye de Fontenay et l'architecture cistercienne_ (Lyon, 1912); Camille Enlart, _L'architecture gothique en Italie_ (Paris, 1893); _ibid._, _En Espagne et en Portugal_ (Paris, 1894); _ibid._, "Villard de Honnecourt et lex Cisterciens," in _Biblio. de l'ecole des chartes_, 1895; _Bulletin Monumental_, 1904, Andre Philippe, on Cistercian churches; John Bilson, _The Architecture of the Cistercians; Their Earliest Churches in England_ (London, 1909); also in the _Journal of the Royal Inst.i.tute of British Architects_, 1909; Marcel Aubert, on Cistercian churches in Germany.

[311] The castle of Fontaine-les-Dijon was held by Bernard's lineage till the XV century. To-day the site is covered by an unfinished commemorative church. The village church is of the XVI century.

[312] As at Citeaux, scarcely an ancient vestige remains at Clairvaux.

The XII-century monastic storehouse now serves as a house of detention.

All trace of St. Bernard's tomb has been lost. The Revolution finished what the Huguenot wars and the absentee commendatory abbots began.

[313] M. Enlart calls Fossanuova, on the Appian Way between Rome and Naples, the first Gothic church in Italy, begun in 1187 by Burgundian Cistercians. Mr. Porter thinks that the infiltration had begun thirty years earlier through various channels. In 1208 Innocent III dedicated Fossanuova; in 1274 St. Thomas Aquinas died there, en route to the Council at Lyons. The same plain Burgundian plan was followed at Casamari (1217), and a daughter house of the latter was S. Galgano (1218), from which went monks who are cited as the masters-of-works of Siena Cathedral, the best Gothic edifice of the peninsula. Monks from French Clairvaux built the three Chiaravalle churches of Italy, and monks from Pontigny raised S. Martino near Viterbo. Later, Italy felt the influence of different French schools; thus the Naples churches are Gothic of Provence because southern French architects accompanied Charles d'Anjou, count of Provence, when he became king of the Two Sicilies. At a.s.sisi the church of S. Francesco shows the Gothic traits of Burgundy, Provence, and Champagne. The Cistercians introduced the torus profile of diagonals, but they long clung to round-headed windows.

The Provence masters introduced pointed arched windows. In Spain, Citeaux found a rival in the monks of Cluny for the dissemination of the new art. In the XII century a large number of Spanish bishoprics were filled by Cluny monks. Sometimes they built according to their own native architecture, as in Lugo Cathedral, San Vincente at Avila, and churches in Seville, which are Burgundian Romanesque. Siguenza Cathedral is Burgundian both in its Romanesque and Gothic parts. Zamora Cathedral, consecrated 1174, and the old cathedral of Salamanca, show traits of Aquitaine; both sees were occupied by Bishop Jerome, who came from Perigieux. The Cistercians of Spain did not confine themselves, as in Italy, to typically Burgundian Gothic churches. Poblet and Santa-Creus (1157) derive from the early Gothic of Midi France, as well as from Burgundy. Las Huelgas, the Cistercian house for nuns near Burgos, finished about 1180, shows slight Burgundian and much Plantagenet Gothic influence. The foundress was the daughter of Henry II and Alienor of Aquitaine. In Spain, as in Italy, the later Gothic monuments conformed to the standards of northern French Gothic. Portugal was more exclusively a Cistercian field of art. In 1148, Alcobaca monastery was founded by the son of a Burgundian prince, progenitor of Portugal's royal line. While it shows Angevin Gothic traits, its plan is the sober Cistercian Burgundian type. In the military Orders of Spain and Portugal the Cistercian Rule was used. The king of Sweden, in 1143, obtained Cistercian missionaries from Clairvaux; in Denmark the abbey church of Soro is Burgundian Gothic. Camille Enlart, _Les origines de l'architecture gothique en Espagne et en Portugal_ (Paris, 1894); _ibid._, _L'architecture gothique en Italie_ (Paris, 1893); _ibid._, _Notes archeologiques sur les abbayes cisterciennes de Scandinavie_ (Paris, 1894); _ibid._, "Villard de Honnecourt et les Cisterciens," in _Biblio. de l'ecole des chartes_, 1895; _ibid._, _L'art gothique ... en Chypre_ (Paris, 1899), 2 vols.

[314] _Congres Archeologique_, 1908; V. Ruprich-Robert, _L'architecture normande aux XIe et XIIe siecles_ (Paris, 1897), 2 vols.; A. de Caumont et Ch. de Beaurepaire, _Memoires historiques sur la Normandie: antiquites, monuments, histoire_ (1827-36); _La Normandie monumentale et pittoresque. Seine-Inferieure, Calvados, Eure, Orne, Manche_ (Le Havre, Lemale et Cie), 8 vols, folio; Leon le Cordier, "L'architecture de la Normandie au XIIIe siecle," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1863, vol. 29, p. 513; Chanoine Poree, _L'art normand_ (Paris, 1914); Taylor et Nodier, _Voyages pittoresques ... dans l'ancienne France. Normandie_ (Paris, Didron, 1825), 2 vols., folio; Henri Prentout, _La Normandie_ (Collection, Les provinces francaises), (Paris, H. Laurens, 1910); Lechande d'Anisy, _Les anciennes abbayes de Normandie_ (1834), 2 vols, and atlas; Ordericus Vitalis, _The Ecclesiastical History of England and Normandy_ (London, Bohn Library, 1856), 4 vols.; Albert Sorel, _Pages normandes_ (Paris, Plon, 1907).

On Normandy's history, see Stubbs, Freeman, Palgrave, H. W. C. Davis, G.

B. Adams, Sir J. H. Ramsay, Miss Kate Norgate, Mrs. J. R, Green, etc. A.

Thierry in his _Conquete de l'Angleterre_ gives details of the oppression of the Anglo-Saxons by their Norman conquerors.

[315] Rodin, _Les cathedrales de France_, (Paris, A. Colin, 1914).

[316] Chanoine Poree, _Histoire de l'abbaye du Bec_ (evreux, impri. de Herissey, 1901); _La Normandie monumentale et pittoresque Eure_, vol. 2, p. 221, "Bec," Chanoine Poree (Le Havre, Lemale et Cie, 1895); Ragey, _Histoire de Saint Anselm_ (Paris, 1889); Martin Rule, _Life and Times of St. Anselm_ (London, 1883).

Other studies of St. Anselm by Remusat (Paris, 1853); R. W. Church (London, 1870); J. M. Rigg (London, 1896), and in _Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury_ (London, 1860-75); _Histoire litteraire de la France_, vol. 8, p. 260, "Lanfranc" (Paris, 1749); vol. 9, p. 398, "St.

Anselm"; p. 369, "Gondulfe, eveque de Rochester" (Paris, 1750).

[317] V. Ruprich-Robert, _L'architecture normande aux XIe et XIIIe siecles_ (Paris, 1885-87); G. T. Rivoira, _Lombardic Architecture_, vol.

2, on Normandy (London and New York, 1910), translated from _Le origini dell 'architettura lombarda_ (Milano, 1908); Canoine Poree, _L'art normand_ (Paris, 1914); Camille Enlart, _Manuel d'archeologie francaise_ (Paris, Picard et fils, 1904), 2 vols.; R. de Lasteyrie, _L'architecture religieuse en France a l'epoque romane_ (Paris, 1912); John Bilson, "The Beginnings of Gothic Architecture," in the _Journal of the Royal Inst.i.tute of British Architects_, Third series, 1898-99, vol. 6, pp.

289, 322, 345; 1901-02, vol. 9, p. 350; Rene f.a.ge, "La decoration geometrique dans l'ecole romane de Normandie," in _Congres Archeol._, 1908, vol. 2, p. 614; Louis Engerand, "La sculpture romane en Normandie," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1904, vol. 68, p. 405; Arthur Kingsley Porter, _Medieval Architecture_, vol. 1, pp. 285 to 332, gives the chief Norman Romanesque monuments (New York and London, 1907); _ibid._, _Lombard Architecture_ (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1917), 3 vols. and atlas.

[318] Henry Adams, _Mont Saint-Michel and Chartres_ (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1913).

[319] Normandy's _Millenaire_ of 1911 was celebrated fitly. Among the books it called forth are: Gabriel Monod, _Le role de la Normandie dans l'histoire de France_ (Paris, 1911); H. Prentout, _Essai sur les origines et la fondation du d.u.c.h.e de Normandy_ (Paris, 1911); A. Albert, _Pet.i.t histoire de Normandie_ (Paris, 1912). In 1915 appeared Charles Homer Haskins, _The Normans in European History_ (Boston, Houghton Mifflin).

[320] E. Lefevre-Pontalis, "Les influences normandes au XIe et au XIIe siecle dans le nord de la France," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1906. vol. 70; Camille Enlart, _L'influence exterieure de l'art normand au moyen age_; F. Chalandon, _Histoire de la domination normande en Italie et en Sicile_ (Paris, 1907); Ch. Diehl, _Palerme et Syracuse_ (Collection, Villes d'art celebres), (Paris, H. Laurens, 1907); emile Bertaud, _L'art dans l'Italie meridionale_.

[321] Roger Martin du Gard, _L'abbaye de Jumieges, etude archeol. des ruines_ (Montdidier, 1909); _ibid._, "Jumieges," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1909, vol. 73, p. 34; John Bilson, on "Jumieges," in _Revue de l'art chretien_, 1901, p. 454; F. Lot, _etudes critiques sur l'abbaye de Saint-Wandrille_ (Paris 1913); _La Normandie monumentale et pittoresque. Seine-Inferieure_, p. 219, "Jumieges," Alfred Darcel; p.

353, "St. Wandrille," Abbe Sauvage (Le Havre, Lemale et Cie); Abbe Julien Loth, _Histoire de l'abbaye royale de St. Pierre de Jumieges_ (Rouen, 1882-85), 3 vols.; David, _Les grandes abbayes de l'Occident_ (Lille, 1907); Lefevre-Pontalis, _Les influences normandes au XIe et au XIIe siecle dans le nord de la France_ (1906), also in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1906, vol. 70.

[322] _Congres Archeologique_, 1883 and 1908; H. Prentout, _Caen et Bayeux_ (Collection, Villes d'art celebres), (Paris, H. Laurens, 1909); V. Ruprich-Robert, _L'eglise Ste. Trinite et l'eglise St. etienne de Caen_ (Caen, 1864); E. de Beaurepaire, _Caen ill.u.s.tre, son histoire, ses monuments_ (Caen, 1896), folio; Bouet, _a.n.a.lyse architecturale de l'abbaye de St. etienne de Caen_ (1868); _La Normandie monumentale et pittoresque. Calvados_, pp. 1, 49; Arcisse de Caumont, _Statistique monumentale du Calvados_ (Caen, F. Le Blanc-Hardal, 1898), 6 vols.; Camille Enlart, _Manuel d'archeologie francaise_ (Paris, Picard, 1902), 2 vols.; John Bilson, "The Beginnings of Gothic Architecture," in _Journal of the Royal Inst.i.tute of British Architects_, Third series, 1898-99, vol. 6, pp. 289, 322, 345, and p. 259, his answer to M. de Lasteyrie. Reprinted in part in _Revue de l'art chretien_, 1901, vol.

44, pp. 369, 462.

In the excellent public library of Caen are to be found the _Congres Archeologique_, the _Bulletin Monumental_, and other archaeological publications. Also the _Catalogue des ouvrages normande de la Bibliotheque munic.i.p.ale de Caen_ (Caen, 1910-12).

[323] Georges Lafenestre, _Gloires et deuils de France_ (Paris, Hachette, 1918).

[324] An old chronicle related how the young widow of the lord of La Roche-Guyon "_mieux aimer s'en aller denuee de tous bien, avec ses trois enfants, que de rendre hommage au roi d'outre mer et de se mettre es mains des anciens ennemies du royaume_." Anthyme Saint-Paul, _L'architecture francaise et la Guerre de Cent Ans_ (Paris, 1910); Simeon Luce, _La France pendant la Guerre de Cent Ans_ (Paris, Hachette, 1893); H. Denifle, _La desolation des eglises, monasteres, et hopitaux en France pendant la Guerre de Cent Ans_ (Paris, Picard, 1899); H.

Martin, _La guerre au XVe siecle_ (Paris, H. Laurens); G.

Lefevre-Pontalis, "episodes de l'invasion anglaise. La guerre de partisans dans la Haute-Normandie" (1424-29), in _Bibliotheque de l'ecole des chartes_, 1893 to 1895, vols. 54, 55, 56.

[325] A. de Caumont, "Les tours d'eglises dans le Calvados," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1847, vol. 23, p. 362; E. Lefevre-Pontalis, "Les clochers du Calvados," in _Congres Archeologique_, 1908, vol. 2, p. 652; G. Bouet, "Clochers du diocese de Bayeux," in _Bulletin Monumental_, 1872, vol. 38, p. 517; Abbe edeline, _Norrey et son histoire; La Normandie monumentale et pittoresque_. _Calvados_, p. 231, "Norrey," G.

Lavalley; p. 349, "Secqueville"; _Congres Archeologique_, 1908, p. 193, "Bernieres"; p. 338, "Norrey"; p. 349, "Secqueville."

[326] In the abbatial of St. Pierre-sur-Dives there is XII-century work in the ambulatory walls, in the piers and side walls of the nave, and in the lower parts of the facade towers. To the XIII century belong most of the choir's piers and the apsidal chapels, also the beautiful chapter house. The transept then was put into harmony with the nave, and its tower built, which latter now is braced by clumsy obstructions within the church. In the XIV century rose the west facade, and the north tower was rebuilt. The XV century rehandled the high vaulting and clearstory, where appear die-away moldings and flamelike tracery. The abbey was founded by Richard II (d. 1020) and his beautiful d.u.c.h.ess, Judith of Brittany. Its Romanesque abbatial was dedicated in 1067 by Archbishop Maurille in the presence of the Conqueror and Matilda. In 1107 the abbatial was burned by Henry I of England, who accused the abbot of siding with his elder brother, with whom he was at war, but in atonement the king contributed toward the reconstruction of the church; _Congres Archeologique_, 1861, 1862, and 1908, p. 278; J. Pepin, _Saint-Pierre-sur-Dives_ (Caen, 1879); Abbe Denis, _eglise de Saint-Pierre-sur-Dives en 1145_ (Caen, 1869); _Bibliotheque de l'ecole des chartes_, vol. 21, p. 120, gives Abbot Haimon's letter, which also was published in Rouen, 1851, by L. de Glanville.

[327] _Congres Archeologique_, 1908; A. Besnard, _Monographie de l'eglise et de l'abbaye Saint Georges de Boscherville_ (Paris, Lechevailier, 1899); J. A. Deville, _Essai historique et descriptive sur l'eglise et l'abbaye de St. Georges de Boscherville_ (Rouen, 1827); _La Normandie monumentale et pittoresque. Seine-Inferieure_, p. 235, Abbe A.

Tougard.

[328] _Congres Archeologique_, 1908; Doctor Coutan, _La Trinite de Fecamp_ (Caen, 1907). He also describes the Trinite in _La Normandie monumentale et pittoresque_. _Seine-Inferieure_, p. 465; the churches at Dieppe, p. 279; the church of Harfleur, p. 393; Le Havre, p. 381; Carville, p. 177, and Notre Dame at Caudebec-en-Caux, of which Abbe Sauvage has published a separate monograph (1876); A. Leport, _Description de l'eglise de la Trinite de Fecamp_ (Fecamp, 1879); Leroux de Lincy, _Essai historique sur l'abbaye de Fecamp_; _Histoire litteraire de la France_, vol. 7, p. 318, "Le bienheureux Guillaume, abbe de St. Benigne de Dijon" (Paris, 1746); vol. 10, p. 265, "Herbert Lozinga, eveque de Norwich" (Paris, 1756).

[329] The abbatial of Bernay (Eure), to-day a corn exchange on the market place, shows in its transept the earliest instance of an arcaded wall pa.s.sage, the feature that, when placed at the clearstory level, became one of the most frequent characteristics of Anglo-Norman architecture, both Romanesque and Gothic. Bernay was founded between 1013 and 1019 by Richard II and Judith of Brittany, the same who invited to their duchy the Lombard, William of Volpiano. William is known to have worked on the Bernay abbatial, which shows resemblances to Burgundian churches at Auxerre and Nevers, and he may have brought to Normandy the Lombard trait of absidal chapels projecting from the eastern wall of the transept. Bernay, however, did not use the Lombard alternance of ground supports. Mr. Bilson thinks that the tall attached stripes were intended for a vaulted, not for a timber roof. The nave's side walls and piers are of Abbot William's time; two bays of the choir belong to later years of the XI century. William the Conqueror is said to have finished the church. It was grievously sacked during the religious wars. The church of Ste. Croix in Bernay, begun, 1373, enlarged 1497, contains tombs from Bec, of former abbots there. _Congres Archeologique_, 1908, vol. 2, p. 588, Chanoine Poree; _Bulletin Monumental_, 1911, vol. 75, p. 396, Chanoine Poree, and p. 403, John Bilson; G.T. Rivoira, _Lombardic Architecture_, translated by G. Mc. N.

Rushford (London and New York, 1910); Chanoine Poree, _Bernay_ (Caen, H.

Delesques, 1912).

[330] _Congres Archeologique_, 1895; Abbe A. Legris, _L'eglise d'Eu_ (1913); Desire Le Beuf, _La ville d'Eu_ (1884); Doctor Coutan, in _La Normandie monumentale et pittoresque_. _Seine-Inferieure_, vol. 1, p.

333; Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire de l'architecture_, vol. 1, p. 198; vol. 2, p. 364; vol. 5, p. 359; Gonse, _L'art gothique_, p. 210 (Paris, Quantin, 1891).

[331] Paul Gout, _Le Mont-Saint-Michel_ (Paris, Colin, 1910), 2 vols.; Ch. H. Besnard, _Mont-Saint-Michel_ (Collection, Pet.i.tes Monographies), (Paris, H. Laurens, 1911); Ch. de Beaurepaire, _Curieuses recherches sur le Mont-Saint-Michel_ (Rouen, 1873); Ed. Corroyer, _Description de l'abbaye du Mont-Saint-Michel et de ses abords_ (Paris, 1877); Dubouchet, _L'abbaye de Mont-Saint-Michel_ (Paris, 1895); Sir Theodore Andreas Cook, _Twenty-five Great Houses of France_ (London and New York, 1916), chap. 1; Henry Adams, _Chartres and Mont-Saint-Michel_ (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1913); Leopold Delisle, ed., _Cronique de Robert de Torigni_ (Paris, Soc. de l'histoire de Normandie, 1872-75), 2 vols. On Robert de Torigny see _Histoire litteraire de la France_, vol.

14, p. 362 (Paris, 1817); Simeon Luce, ed., _Cronique de Mont-Saint-Michel: la defence nationale_ (1879-86); O. de Poli, _Les defenseurs du Mont-Saint-Michel, 1417-50_, (Paris, 1895); Huynes, _Histoire generale de Mont-Saint-Michel_ (Rouen, 1872); Brin, _St.

Michel et le Mont-Saint-Michel dans l'histoire et la litterature_ (Paris, 1880).

[332] From the _Chanson de Roland_, edition Leon Gautier (Tours, Mame et fils, 1895).

"Li quens Rollanz se jut desuz un pin; Envers Espaigne en ad turnet sun vis.

De plusurs choses a remembrer li prist; De toutes teres que li bers ad cunquis, De dulce France, des humes de sun lign, De Carlemagne, sun seignur, ki l'nurrit, Ne poet muer n'en plurt e ne suspirt.

Mais lui mesme ne voelt metre en ubli; Cleimet sa culpe, si priet Deu mercit: 'Viere paterne, ki unkes ne mentis, Seit Lazarin de mort resurrexis E Daniel des leuns quaresis, Guaris de mei l'aume de tuz perilz Pur les pecchiez que en ma vie fis!'

Sun destre gant a Deu en puroffrit, E de sa main seinz Gabriel l'ad pris.

Desur sun braz teneit le chef enclin: Juintes ses mains est alez a sa fin.

Deus li tramist sun angle cherubin, Seinz Raphael, seinz Michiel de l'Peril, Ensemble od els seinz Gabriels i vint, L'aume de l'c.u.n.te portent en pares."

("Roland the brave lay p.r.o.ne beneath a pine, Toward Spain his face was turned as conqueror, Of many things came back the memory sharp, The host of places he had won in war, Thoughts of sweet France and of his parentage, Of Charlemagne, his lord, who nurtured him; And tears and sighs rose as the memories surged.

Nor did he wish his own self to forget.

Demanding grace of G.o.d, he told his sins: 'Our Father true, who never yet has lied, Who from the grave raised Blessed Lazarus, Who Daniel saved from lions, save my soul.

Pardon the sins that I have stained it with!'

Toward G.o.d he held his right-hand gauntlet up, Archangel Gabriel took it from his hand.

Then on his arm his head sank slowly down, Hands clasped in prayer his spirit pa.s.sed beyond.

G.o.d to him sent his angel cherubim, Archguardian Michael, him called of the Peril, St. Raphael and St. Gabriel with him came And bore the Count's soul straight to Paradise.")

[333] Leon Gautier, _Les epopees francaises_ (Paris, V. Palme, 1878-94), 4 vols.; Joseph Bedier, _Les legends epiques, recherches sur la formation des chansons de geste_, vol. 3, "La legende de Roland" (Paris, H. Champion, 1908-13), 4 vols.

[334] "Il y a des provinces qui ont le doit de se dire francaises par excellence.... La Normandie et la Picardie sont de celles-la.... Elles ont apportes, dans le cours des siecles, a la vieille Ile-de-France, leur ainee, le concours loyal de leur bras, de leur courage, de leur genie."--GABRIEL HANOTAUX, "La Normandie dans l'unite francaise," in _Societe normande de geographie_, 1900, vol 22.

[335] The court at Rouen asked Jeanne at the fourth interrogation, February 27, 1431: "Whose was the first voice you heard when you were about thirteen?" Jeanne replied: "It was St. Michael's. I saw him before my eyes; he was not alone, but was encircled by angels of heaven. I saw him with my bodily eyes as clearly as I see you. When they left me, I wept; right gladly would I have gone with them, that is--my soul." At the seventh interrogation, March 15, 1431, when asked how she knew it was St. Michael, Jeanne replied: "_Par le parler et le langage des anges_.... He told me I was a good child and that G.o.d would aid me, and to come to the aid of the king of France. He related to me the _grand pitie qui etait au royaume de France_."--E. O'REILLY, _Les deux proces de cond.a.m.nation et la sentence de rehabilitation, de Jeanne d'Arc_ (Paris, Plon, 1808), 2 vols.

[336] _Le proces Jeanne d'Arc_, eighth interrogation, March 17, 1431.

When asked by her judges if G.o.d hated the English, Jeanne replied: "Of the love or the hate which G.o.d has for the English, or of what He will do with their souls, I know nothing. But this I know: that they one and all will be driven out of France, except those who here die, and that G.o.d will send victory to the French against the English."

[337] Marion Couthouy Smith, "Sainte Jeanne of France," in _The Nation_ (London, 1915.)

[338] _Congres Archeologique_, 1859 and 1868; Abbe Loisel et Jean Lafond. _La cathedrale de Rouen_ (Collection, Pet.i.tes Monographies), (Paris, H. Laurens, 1913): Loisel et Alline, _La cathedrale de Rouen avant l'incendie de 1200_ (Rouen, Lecerf fils, 1904); Louise Pillion, _Les portails lateraux de la cathedrale de Rouen_ (Paris, Picard et fils, 1907); A. Deville, _Tombeaux de la cathedrale de Rouen_ (Paris, Levy, 1881), folio; Camille Enlart, _Rouen_ (Collection, Villes d'art celebres), (Paris, H. Laurens, 1904); emile Lambin, "La cathedrale de Rouen," in _Revue de l'art chretien_, 1900; Abbe Julien Loth, _La cathedrale de Rouen_ (1879).