English Grammar in Familiar Lectures Part 8

7. The word _news_ is always singular. The nouns _means, alms_, and _amends_, though plural in form, may be either singular or plural in signification. Antipodes, credenda, literati, and minutiae are always plural. _Bandit_ is now used as the singular of Banditti.

8. The following nouns form their plurals not according to any general rule; thus, man, men; woman, women; child, children; ox, oxen; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; foot, feet; mouse, mice; louse, lice; brother, brothers or brethren; cow, cows or kine; penny, pence, or pennies when the coin is meant; die, dice _for play,_ dies _for coining;_ pea and fish, pease and fish when the species is meant, but _peas_ and _fishes_ when we refer to the number; as, six _peas_, ten _fishes_.

9. The following compounds form their plurals thus: handful, handfuls; cupful, cupfuls; spoonful, spoonfuls:--brother-in-law, brothers-in-law; court-martial, courts-martial.

The following words form their plurals according to the rules of the languages from which they are adopted.

_Singular_ _Plural._ Ant.i.thesis ant.i.theses Apex apices Appendix appendixes _or_ appendices Arcanum arcana Automaton automata Axis axes Basis bases Beau beaux _or_ beaus Calx calces _or_ calxes Cherub cherubim _or_ cherubs Crisis crises Criterion criteria Datum data Diaeresis diaereses Desideratum desiderata Effluvium effluvia Ellipsis ellipses Emphasis emphases Encomium encomia _or_ encomiums Erratum errata Genius genii [2]

Genus genera Hypothesis hypotheses Ignis fatuus, ignes fatui Index indices _or_ indexes [3]

Lamina laminae Magus magi Memorandum memoranda _or_ memorandums Metamorphosis metamorphoses Parenthesis parentheses Phenomenon phenomena Radius radii _or_ radiuses Stamen stamina Seraph seraphim _or_ seraphs Stimulus stimuli Stratum strata Thesis theses Vertex vertices Vortex vortices _or_ vortexes

[2] Genii, imaginary spirits: geniuses, persons of great mental abilities.

[3] Indexes, when pointers or tables of contents are meant: indices, when referring to algebraic quant.i.ties.

CASE.

Case, when applied to nouns and p.r.o.nouns, means the different state, situation, or position they have in relation to other words. Nouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.

I deem the essential qualities of _case_, in English, to consist, not in the _changes_ or _inflections_ produced on nouns and p.r.o.nouns, but in the various offices which they perform in a sentence, by a.s.suming different positions in regard to other words. In accordance with this definition, these cases can be easily explained on reasoning principles, founded in the nature of things.

Now, five grains of common sense will enable any one to comprehend what is meant by case. Its real character is extremely simple; but in the different grammars it a.s.sumes as many meanings as Proteus had shapes.

The most that has been written on it, however, is mere verbiage. What, then, is meant by _case_? In speaking of a horse, for instance, we say he is in a good _case_, when he is fat, and in a bad _case_, when he is lean, and needs more oats; and in this sense we apply the term _case_ to denote the _state_ or _condition_ of the horse. So, when we place a noun before a verb as actor or subject, we say it is in the _nominative case_; but when it follows a transitive verb or preposition, we say it has another _case_; that is, it a.s.sumes a new _position_ or _situation_ in the sentence: and this we call the _objective_ case. Thus, the _boy_ gathers fruit. Here the boy is represented as _acting_. He is, therefore, in the _nominative_ case. But when I say, Jane struck the _boy_, I do not represent the boy as the _actor_, but as the _object_ of the action. He is, therefore, in a new _case_ or _condition_. And when I say, This is the _boy's_ hat, I do not speak of the boy either as _acting_ or as _acted upon_; but as possessing something: for which reason he is in the _possessive_ case. Hence, it is clear, that nouns have three cases or positions.

As the nominative and objective cases of the noun are inseparably connected with the verb, it is impossible for you to understand them until you shall have acquired some knowledge of this part of speech. I will, therefore, now give you a partial description of the verb in connexion with the noun; which will enable me to ill.u.s.trate the cases of the noun so clearly, that you may easily comprehend their nature.

In the formation of language, mankind, in order to hold converse with each other, found it necessary, in the first place, to give _names_ to the various objects by which they were surrounded. Hence the origin of the first part of speech, which we denominate the _noun_. But merely to name the objects which they beheld or thought of, was not sufficient for their purpose. They perceived that these objects existed, moved, acted, or caused some action to be done. In looking at a man, for instance, they perceived that he lived, walked, ate, smiled, talked, ran, and so on. They perceived that plants grow, flowers bloom, and rivers flow.

Hence the necessity of another part of speech, whose office it should be to express these existences and actions. This second cla.s.s of words we call

VERBS.

A verb is a word which signifies to BE, to DO, or to SUFFER; as, I _am_; I _rule_; I _am ruled_.

Verbs are of three kinds, active, pa.s.sive, and neuter. They are also divided into regular, irregular, and defective.

The term _verb_ is derived from the Latin word _verb.u.m_, which signifies a _word_. This part of speech is called a _verb_ or _word_, because it is deemed the most important word in every sentence: and without a verb and nominative, either expressed or implied, no sentence can exist. The noun is the original and leading part of speech; the verb comes next in order, and is far more complex than the noun. These two are the most useful in the language, and form the basis of the science of grammar.

The other eight parts of speech are subordinate to these two, and, as you will hereafter learn, of minor importance.

For all practical purposes, the foregoing definition and division of the verb, though, perhaps, not philosophically correct, will be found as _convenient_ as any other. I adopt them, therefore, to be consistent with the principle, that, in arranging the materials of this treatise, I shall not alter or reject any established definition, rule, or principle of grammar, unless, in my humble judgment, some _practical advantage_ to the learner is thereby gained. The following, some consider a good definition.

A VERB is a word which _expresses affirmation_.

An _active verb_ expresses action; and

The _nominative case_ is the actor, or subject of the verb; as, _John writes_.

In this example, which is the _verb?_ You know it is the word _writes_, because this word signifies to _do;_ that is, it expresses _action_, therefore, according to the definition, it is an _active verb_. And you know, too, that the noun _John_ is the _actor_, therefore John is in the _nominative case_ to the verb writes. In the expressions, The man walks--The boy plays--Thunders roll--- Warriors fight--you perceive that the words _walks, plays, roll_, and _fight_, are _active verbs;_ and you cannot be at a loss to know, that the nouns _man, boy, thunders_, and _warriors_, are in the _nominative case._

As no _action_ can be produced without some agent or moving cause, it follows, that every active verb must have some _actor_ or _agent_. This _actor, doer_, or _producer of the action_, is the nominative.

_Nominative_, from the Latin _nomino_, literally signifies to _name;_ but in the technical sense in which it is used in grammar, it means the noun or p.r.o.noun which is the _subject_ of affirmation. This subject or nominative may be _active, pa.s.sive_, or _neuter_, as hereafter exemplified.

A _neuter verb_ expresses neither action nor pa.s.sion, but _being_, or _a state of being_; as, _John sits_.

Now, in this example, _John_ is not represented as _an actor_, but, as the _subject_ of the verb _sits_, therefore John is in the _nominative case_ to the verb. And you know that the word _sits_ does not express _apparent action_, but a _condition of being;_ that is, it represents John in a particular _state of existence;_ therefore _sits_ is a _neuter verb_. In speaking of the neuter gender of nouns, I informed you, that _neuter_ means _neither;_ from which it follows, that neuter gender implies neither gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, by an easy transition of thought, you learn, that _neuter_, when applied to verbs, means neither of the other two cla.s.ses; that is, a _neuter_ verb is one which is neither active nor pa.s.sive. In these examples, The man stands--The lady lives--The child sleeps--The world exists--the words _stands, lives, sleeps_, and _exists_, are _neuter verbs;_ and the nouns, _man, lady, child_, and _world_, are all in the _nominative case_, because each is the _subject_ of a verb. Thus you perceive, that when a noun is in the nominative case to an _active_ verb, it is the _actor;_ and when it is nominative to a _neuter_ verb, it is _not_ an actor, but the _subject_ of the verb.

Some neuter verbs express _being in general;_ as, The man _is_; Kingdoms _exist_. Others express _being in some particular state_; as, The man _stands, sits, lies_, or _hangs_.

I will now give you two _signs_, which will enable you to distinguish the verb from other parts of speech, when you cannot tell it by its signification. Any word that will make sense with _to_ before it, is a verb. Thus, to run, to write, to smile, to sing, to hear, to ponder, to live, to breathe, are verbs. Or, any word that will _conjugate_, is a verb. Thus, I run, thou runnest, he runs; I write, thou writest, he writes; I smile, &c. But the words, boy, lady, child, and world, will not make sense with _to_ prefixed--_to_ boy, _to_ lady, _to_ world, is nonsense. Neither will they con_jugate_--I lady, thou ladiest, &c. is worse than nonsense. Hence you perceive, that these words are _not_ verbs. There are some exceptions to these rules, for verbs are sometimes used as nouns. This will be explained by and by.

To verbs belong _number, person, mood_, and _tense_.

At present I shall speak only of the number and person of verbs; but hereafter I will give you a full explanation of all their properties.

And permit me to inform you, that I shall not lead you into the _intricacies_ of the science, until, by gradual and easy progressions, you are enabled to comprehend the principles involved in them. Only such principles will be elucidated, as you are prepared to understand at the time they are unfolded before you. You must not be too anxious to get along _rapidly_; but endeavor to become thoroughly acquainted with one principle, before you undertake another. This lecture will qualify you for the next.

NUMBER AND PERSON OF VERBS. You recollect, that the nominative is the _actor_ or _subject_, and the active verb is the _action_ performed by the nominative. By this you perceive, that a very intimate connexion or relation exists between the nominative case and the verb. If, therefore, only _one_ creature or thing acts, only _one_ action, at the same instant, can be done; as, The _girl writes_. The nominative _girl_ is here of the singular number, because it signifies but one person; and the verb _writes_ denotes but one action, which the girl performs; therefore the verb _writes_ is of the _singular_ number, agreeing with its nominative _girl_. When the nominative case is _plural_, the verb must be _plural_; as, _girls write_. Take notice, the _singular_ verb ends in _s_, but the noun is generally _plural_ when it ends in _s_; thus, The girl _writes_--the _girls_ write.

_Person_, strictly speaking, is a quality that belongs _not_ to _verbs_, but to nouns and p.r.o.nouns. We say, however, that the verb must agree with its nominative in _person_, as well as in number; that is, the verb must be spelled and spoken in such a manner as to correspond with the _first, second_, or _third_ person of the noun or p.r.o.noun which is its nominative.

I will now show you how the verb is varied in order to agree with its nominative in number and person. I, Thou, He, She, It; We, Ye or You, They, are _personal p.r.o.nouns_. _I_ is of the _first_ person, and _singular_ number; _Thou_ is _second_ person, _sing._; _He, She_, or _It_, is _third_ per. _sing._; _We_ is _first_ per. _plural_; _Ye_ or _You_ is _second_ per. _plural_; _They_ is _third_ per. _plural_. These p.r.o.nouns are the representatives of nouns, and perform the same office that the nouns would for which they stand. When placed before the verb, they are, therefore, the _nominatives_ to the verb.

Notice particularly, the different variations or endings of the verb, as it is thus conjugated in the INDICATIVE MOOD, PRESENT TENSE.

_Singular_. _Plural_.

1. _Per_. I walk, 1. _Per_. We Walk, 2. _Per_. Thou walk_est_, 2. _Per_. Ye _or_ you walk, 3. _Per_. He walk_s_, _or_ 3. _Per_. They walk, or the boy walk_s_, the boys walk.

_or_ walk_eth_.

This display of the verb shows you, that whenever it ends in _est_, it is of the _second_ person _singular_; but when the verb ends in _s_, or _eth_, it is of the _third_ person singular. _Walkest, ridest, standest_, are of the second person singular; and _walks_ or _walketh, rides_ or _rideth, stands_ or _standeth_, are of the third person singular.

I have told you, that when the nominative is singular number, the verb must be; when the nominative is plural, the verb must be; and when the nominative is first, second, or third person, the verb must be of the same person. If you look again at the foregoing conjugation of _walk_, you will notice that the verb varies if its endings in the _singular_, in order to agree in _form_ with the first, second, and third person of its nominative; but in the _plural_ it does not vary its endings from the first person singular. The verb, however, agrees in _sense_ with its nominative in the plural, as well as in the singular. Exercise a little mind, and you will perceive that _agreement_ and _government_ in language do not consist _merely_ in the _form_ of words. Now, is it not clear, that when I say, I _walk_, the verb walk is _singular_, because it expresses but _one_ action? And when I say, Two men _walk_, is it not equally apparent, that walk is _plural_, because it expresses _two_ actions? In the sentence, Ten men _walk_, the verb _walk_ denotes _ten_ actions, for there are ten actors. Common sense teaches you, that there must be as many _actions_ as there are _actors_; and that the verb, when it has _no form_ or _ending_ to show it, is as strictly plural, as when it has.--So, in the phrase, _We_ walk, the verb walk is _first_ person, because it expresses the actions performed by the _speakers: Ye_ or _you_ walk, the verb is _second_ person, denoting the actions of the persons _spoken to;_ third person, _They_ walk. The verb, then, when correctly written, always agrees, in _sense_, with its nominative in number and person.

At present you are learning two parts of speech, neither of which can be understood without a knowledge of the other. It therefore becomes necessary to explain them both, in the same lecture. You have been already informed, that nouns have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.

POSSESSIVE CASE. The _possessive case_ denotes the possessor of something; as, This is _John's_ horse. This expression implies, that _John_ is the _owner_ or _possessor_ of the horse; and, that horse is the _property_ which he possesses.

When I say, These are the _men's_, and those, the _boys'_ hats, the two words, "boys' hats," plainly convey the idea, if they have any meaning at all, that the boys _own_ or _possess_ the hats. "Samuel Badger sells _boys'_ hats." Who _owns_ the hats? Mr. Badger. How is that fact ascertained? Not by the words, "boys' hats," which, taken by themselves, imply, not that they are _Mr. Badger's_ hats, nor that they are _for_ boys, but that they are hats _of_, or _belonging to_, or _possessed by_ boys. But we _infer_ from the _words connected_ with the phrase, "boys'

hats," that the boys are not yet, as the phrase literally denotes, in the actual possession of the hats. The possession is antic.i.p.ated.

In the phrases, _fine_ hats, _coa.r.s.e_ hats, _high-crowned_ hats, _broad-brimmed_ hats, _woollen, new, ten, some, these, many_ hats, the words in italics, are adjectives, because they restrict, qualify, or define the term _hats;_ but the term _boys'_ does not _describe_ or limit the meaning of _hats. Boys'_, therefore, is not, as some suppose, an adjective.

"The _slave's_ master." Does the slave possess the master? Yes. The slave _has_ a master. If he _has_ him, then, he _possesses_ him;--he sustains that relation to him which we call possession.

A noun in the possessive case, is always known by its having an apostrophe, and generally an _s_ after it; thus, _John's_, hat; the _boy's_ coat. When a plural noun in the possessive case, ends in _s_, the apostrophe is added, but no additional _s_; as, "_Boys'_ hats; _Eagles'_ wings." When a singular noun ends in _ss_, the apostrophe only is added; as, "For _goodness'_ sake; for _righteousness'_ sake;"

except the word witness; as, "The _witness's_ testimony." When a noun in the possessive case ends in _ence_, the _s_ is omitted, but the apostrophe is retained; as, "For _conscience'_ sake."

Now please to turn back, and read over this and the preceding lecture _three_ times, and endeavor, not only to understand, but, also, to _remember_, what you read. In reading, proceed thus: read one sentence over slowly, and then look off the book, and repeat it two or three times over in your mind. After that, take another sentence and proceed in the same manner, and so on through the whole lecture. Do not presume to think, that these directions are of no real consequence to you; for, unless you follow them strictly, you need not expect to make rapid progress. On the other hand, if you proceed according to my instructions, you will be sure to acquire a practical knowledge of grammar in a short time.--When you shall have complied with this requisition, you may commit the following _order of parsing a noun_, and _the order of parsing a verb_; and then you will be prepared to pa.r.s.e or a.n.a.lyze the following examples.