Essays in Natural History and Agriculture Part 12

Why do you think that the water in pools is never still enough to allow it to get below 32 degrees without freezing on still clear nights? In long deep pools, where the body of the water is perhaps a hundred times as great as the current flowing into it, the motion is so extremely slow that I cannot for a moment doubt that it gets below 32 degrees without congelation, but when it arrives at a rapid, this ice is immediately formed.

The Editor closed the discussion at this point by saying that the subject was not of sufficient agricultural importance to be continued further.

The following is my brother Richard Garnett's [16] account of his observations on bottom-frosts. (The paper was written in 1818, and published in the "Journal of the Royal Inst.i.tution.")

ON THE PRODUCTION OF ICE AT THE BOTTOMS OF RIVERS.

The phenomenon of the production of ice at the bottoms of rivers has been repeatedly noticed, but I am not aware that any satisfactory solution of the cause has. .h.i.therto been given. In Nicholson's "Dictionary of Chemistry," several different hypotheses are enumerated, which I shall not stop now to examine, since it may be safely a.s.serted that they neither accord with the established principles of chemistry, nor with the facts for which they endeavour to account. The most recent theory with which I am acquainted is that of Mr. A. Knight, who in a paper lately published in the "Philosophical Transactions," seems to consider the particles of ice as originally formed at the surface, and afterwards absorbed by the eddies of streams to the bottom. He states, in support of this idea, that he did not observe any similar phenomenon in still water. I shall advert to this hypothesis in the sequel, and at present it may suffice to remark of it and all others which I have hitherto seen, that supposing any of them to be correct, the same effects ought regularly to be produced whenever the atmosphere is at a similar temperature, or in other words, that whenever the frost is so intense as materially to affect the water of a river, we may then expect to find ice at the bottom. Now this is certainly not the case, since the appearance we are treating of never occurs but under peculiar _atmospherical_ circ.u.mstances, and rivers are frequently frozen over, and remain so for a length of time without a particle of ice being visible at the bottom of their streams. I do not now profess to have developed this mystery, but merely intend to state the circ.u.mstances under which the phenomenon takes place, as well as a few particulars connected with it, which are perhaps not generally known, and which may hereafter be serviceable as data for investigating the cause.

It is well known to meteorologists that a severe frost in winter does not always commence in a uniform manner. Sometimes it begins with a gentle wind from the E. or N.E., and is at first comparatively mild in its operations, but afterwards gradually increases in intensity. Frosts of this kind are generally more lasting than others, and during such, I have not observed that any ice is generated at the bottoms of streams; though the deep and still parts of rivers are often frozen over to a considerable extent. At other times, during the continuance of the violent south-westerly gales which are so prevalent in this country in the winter months, the wind frequently s.h.i.+fts on a sudden from S.W. to N.W., commonly about an hour before sunset, and blows with great impetuosity in the latter direction, attended with a severe frost, and sometimes with a heavy fall of snow. The effects of this frost, in places exposed to the wind, are extremely rapid, so as to render the ground impenetrably hard in about a couple of hours from its commencement. Situations that are not so much exposed seem comparatively little affected--at least, I have repeatedly observed that a small sheltered pond in a field was nearly free from ice, while the current of a large and rapid river at no great distance was nearly choked up by it. I believe that the phenomenon under consideration seldom occurs except during such frosts as these, and the following are the princ.i.p.al circ.u.mstances connected with it which I am able to state from my own observation.

It may here be premised that ice of this description is seldom seen adhering to anything beside rock, stone, or gravel, and that it is more abundantly produced in proportion to the greater magnitude and number of the stones composing the bed of the river, combined (as will be further noticed) with the velocity of the current. I have been informed by a friend that he has occasionally seen it attached to solid wooden piles at a considerable depth below the surface of the water, but I never saw or heard of any on earth, mud, or clay. It is not easy to ascertain the precise time at which the process begins to take place. It appears, however, almost invariably to commence during the first night of the frost, and probably within a few hours after sunset. On the ensuing morning the first thing which strikes an observer is an immense quant.i.ty of detached plates of ice floating down the stream. Mr.

Knight naturally enough supposed these to have been formed at the surface by the influence of the freezing atmosphere, and afterwards absorbed by the current; but I think that a minute inspection would have led him to form a different conclusion-- viz., that they are first formed in the bed of the river, and afterwards rise to the surface. It is true that none are to be seen in situations where there is no sensible current, and that they abound most in rough and rapid places; but on closely examining any stream of moderate velocity, yet smooth, equable, and free from all appearance of eddy or rippling, a great number of these plates of ice will be found adhering to the rock, stone, or gravel at the bottom. If they are watched with attention, they will be observed to rapidly increase in bulk, till at last, on account of their inferior specific gravity, aided, perhaps, by the action of the current, they detach themselves from the substances to which they first adhered, and rise to the surface of the water.

The form of these pieces of ice is very irregular, depending in a great measure on the size and shape of the stones or other substances to which they were originally attached. Most of them seem to be of an oblong or circular figure; they are generally convex on the upper surface, and have a number of laminae and spiculae shooting from them in various directions, especially from their circ.u.mference. Sometimes when those floating pieces or plates meet with any obstruction in the channel of the river, they acc.u.mulate in such quant.i.ties as to cover the surface of the water, and become frozen together in one large sheet, but this kind of ice may be always readily distinguished from that produced in the usual way by the action of the cold air on the surface, which is smooth, transparent, and of an uniform texture; on the contrary, one of these conglomerated fields or sheets is opaque, uneven, full of asperities, and the form of each separate plate composing it may be distinctly traced. In this situation, they generally a.s.sume the shape of irregular polygons, with angles somewhat rounded; a form apparently caused by the lateral pressure of the contiguous pieces.

On the river Wharfe, near Otley, in the West Riding of Yorks.h.i.+re, is a weir or milldam where this phenomenon is sometimes manifested in a striking manner. This structure is of hewn stone, forming a plane inclined at an angle of from 35 degrees to 50 degrees, fronting the north and extending from west to east, to the length of 250 or 300 yards. When one of the above-mentioned frosts occurs, the stone which composes the weir soon becomes incrusted with ice, which increases so rapidly in thickness as in a short time to impede the course of the stream, which falls over it in a tolerably uniform sheet, and with considerable velocity; at the same time, the wind blowing strongly from the north-west, contributes to repel the water and freeze such as adheres to the crest of the weir when its surface comes nearly in contact with the air. The consequence is that in a short time the current is entirely obstructed, and the superinc.u.mbent water forced to a higher level. But as the above-mentioned causes continue to act, the ice is also elevated by a perpetual aggregation of particles, till by a series of similar operations an icy mound or barrier is formed, so high as to force the water over the opposite bank, and thus produce an apparent inundation. But in a short time the acc.u.mulated weight of a great many thousand cubic feet of water presses so strongly against the barrier as to burst a pa.s.sage through some weak part, through which the water escapes and subsides to its former level, leaving the singular appearance of a wall or rampart of ice three or four feet high, and about two feet in thickness, along the greatest part of the upper edge of the weir. The ice composing this barrier where it adheres to the stone, is of solid consistency, but the upper part consists of a mult.i.tude of thin laminae or layers resting upon each other in a confused manner, and at different degrees of inclination, their interstices being occupied by innumerable icy spiculae, diverging and crossing each other in all directions. The whole ma.s.s much resembles the white and porous ice which may be seen at the edge of a pond or small rill where the water has subsided during a frost.

It may be further observed that a frost of this kind is very limited in its duration, seldom lasting more than thirty-six or forty hours. On the morning of the second day after its commencement, a visible relaxation takes place in the temperature of the atmosphere. Usually before noon, the wind on a sudden s.h.i.+fts to the south-west, and a rapid thaw comes on, frequently attended with rain. What appears somewhat remarkable is, that during several hours after the commencement of the thaw, the production of ice at the bottom of rivers seems to go on without abatement, and upon examining a rapid stream, the stones over which it flows will be found at this period completely incrusted with the above description of icy plates. It seems evident from this that the bed of the river, which has been reduced below the freezing temperature, is not for some time affected by the change of the atmosphere. This may be in some measure ill.u.s.trated by the well-known fact, that rain which falls upon a rock or stone wall, is frequently converted into ice, though the air and the ground are evidently in a state of thaw. Before the following morning, the ice of which we have been speaking generally disappears, being carried away by the current or dissolved by the thaw.

The last time that I remarked this phenomenon, was in a stream of the river Aire, near Bradford, in Yorks.h.i.+re, on the 1st of January, 1814. This instance did not precisely accord with what I have stated to be the usual circ.u.mstances of the case, as the frost then had existed several days without any previous appearance of this kind; but there were several indications of approaching change of temperature, and the day following there was a partial thaw attended with rain, the wind having veered from north-west to south-west. This thaw, however, did not continue long, and was succeeded by a frost which surpa.s.sed all within my recollection in severity and duration. Yet during the whole of the period, though the thermometer often stood below 18 degrees Fahrenheit, and the estuary of the Tees several miles below Stockton, where the spring-tides rise from twelve to eighteen feet, was for two months frozen over, so as to allow the pa.s.sage of a loaded waggon, I could never perceive a particle of ice adhering to the rock or gravel, in the bed of the small and rapid river Leven in Cleveland, where I then resided. This circ.u.mstance seems decisively to prove that the phenomenon does not merely depend on an intensity of cold.

I confess I am unable to frame any hypotheses respecting the above-mentioned facts which would not be liable to numerous and formidable objections. The immediate cause of the formation of the ice seems to be a rapid diminution of the temperature in the stone or gravel in the bed of the river, connected with the sudden changes in the state of the atmosphere, but it does not seem very easy to explain the precise nature of this connection.

We may easily conceive that by a sudden change from a state of thaw to an intense frost attended by a strong wind, the whole body of water in a river may become quickly cooled, and consequently diminish the temperature of the stone or gravel over which it flows; but to suppose that water which is not itself at freezing- point is capable of reducing the substances in contact with it by means of a continual application of successive particles so far _beneath_ that temperature as in process of time to convert the contiguous water to ice, seems not to accord very well with the usually received theory of the equilibrium of caloric. However, the fact that the quant.i.ty of ice thus produced is always greater in proportion to the superior velocity of the stream, little or none being found where there is no sensible current, seems in some degree to countenance the above idea.

I cannot learn that any experiments have ever been inst.i.tuted on this subject, though it seems that they might easily be made by a person conveniently situated and possessed of the necessary instruments. A careful examination by properly contrived thermometers of the relative temperatures of the air, the water, and the bed of the river and of the changes undergone by them during the above process, would probably go a great way towards solving the problem. I know no one better qualified for this undertaking than Mr. Knight, if he should at any future time have leisure and opportunity to direct towards it the same acuteness of observation and accuracy of investigation which have enabled him to make such important discoveries in the economy of the vegetable kingdom, and if the explanation of this phenomenon should ever lead to results of any importance to the cause of science, I shall feel sufficiently satisfied if it be deemed that I have been of any service in pointing out the way.

RICHARD GARNETT.

BLACKBURN, _May 16th_, 1818.

GOSSAMER.

c.l.i.tHEROE, _October 20th_, 1859.

To the Editor of the "Field."

"A Young Inquirer" asks what is the cause of that appearance so often met with in the autumn, resembling spider-webs. He says, if it be the production of that insect, how do you account for their hanging apparently unsuspended in the air, as it is seen fifty or sixty feet high, without a tree or any other object near to which it could be attached?

I suppose you have not time to give to such questions minutely, as your reply would lead one to infer that Gossamer proceeded from spiders in general; and if it be meant that all true spiders spin, it is no doubt correct; but the Gossamer which "A Young Inquirer"

asks about is the production of a small black spider about the size of a flea, which was a true aeronaut long before Montgolfier or Lunardi, and if "A Young Inquirer" has access to either the "Linnean Transactions" or the first series of Loudon's "Magazine of Natural History," he will find particulars in the latter, showing that a violent controversy raged through the three first volumes between Mr. Blackwall and Dr. Murray on the question whether the ascent of this spider (_A. AEronautica_) was electric, or whether it merely travelled in the direction of the wind. But if "A Young Inquirer" would deserve his name, let him begin with these spiders and observe for himself; he will find the inquiry highly interesting.

He has no doubt frequently seen a small black spider creeping on his hat or clothes (if he lives in the country this must have occurred to him many times); this is the aeronautic spider. Let him take this upon his hand, and if he be in the house let him carry it to the open door or window, and allow it to creep up to the tip of his finger, which he must then hold in a horizontal position. When the spider finds it can proceed no further by creeping, it generally drops a few inches, where it remains suspended for a short time, apparently quite still, but if very closely observed another thread (Gossamer) may be seen proceeding from its vent, and when this has reached the length which the spider's instinct tells it is sufficient for the purpose, it cuts off the connection till then existing between it and the thread by which it has. .h.i.therto been suspended from the finger, and floats away into s.p.a.ce. Very often it rises almost vertically, sometimes its course is nearly horizontal, and sometimes it is oblique.

I cannot say, as Mr. Murray does, that I have seen the spider go _against_ the wind, neither can I confirm Mr. Blackwall's a.s.sertions that he always goes right before the wind, for I have seen him go apparently across the current, so far as I could judge of the direction of the wind at the time.

If "A Young Inquirer" makes the experiment I have suggested, let him not be discouraged if the first he tries does not go off at all, as I have sometimes found this to be the case, which I accounted for by supposing that possibly the supply of materials might be exhausted at the time.

I do not remember that I ever saw one of these aeronautic spiders preying upon any insect, yet it must be for some such purpose that they ascend to great alt.i.tudes, sometimes in countless numbers, and the way they come down again is quite as curious as the manner in which they ascend.

Many years since, as I was walking over the hills in the neighbourhood of Blackburn, on a bright, still morning in September, thousands of small locks of what looked like cotton wool were slowly descending to the ground from various alt.i.tudes-- some as high as I could see--and tens of thousands of similar locks were lying on the ground on both sides of the path by which I was travelling; and on examination I found that all these locks were Gossamer, some with the spider still with them, but generally deserted. The spiders when they wanted to come down, finding there was no descending current of air, or perhaps, as Mr. Murray says, no electricity, determined to descend in _parachutes_; they therefore had drawn up their cables hand over hand (as they may often be seen to do when they wish to ascend their own lines) until they acc.u.mulated a ma.s.s heavy enough to fall by its own weight, and carry them along with it.

I have seen Gossamer in this form at other times before and since, but in the likeness of a snow-shower I never saw it except on that occasion, and, if I recollect aright, the same enormous shower of Gossamer was observed to extend as far as Liverpool.

What induced these millions of spiders to go up at the same time, of course I do not know, and can only suppose that they went up to feed; but, as I have said previously, I never saw one of this species preying upon anything. The idea that they go aloft to kill the _Furia Infernalis_ is too fanciful to deserve credit. Who knows whether the _Furia Infernalis_ is anything else than a murderous Mrs. Harris--at all events, who has seen one, and what was it like?

I suppose they are true sportsmen, and disdaining to take their fish in nets, they, like thorough brothers of the angle, fish only _with fine gut_.

Gilbert White noticed one of these showers of Gossamer, and as his account is very interesting, I quote it. He says that on the 21st of September, 1741, intent upon field diversions, he rose before daybreak, but on going out he found the whole face of the country covered with a thick coat of cobweb drenched with dew, as if two or three setting-nets had been drawn one over the other. When his dogs attempted to hunt, their eyes were blinded and hoodwinked, so much that they were obliged to lie down and sc.r.a.pe themselves.

This appearance was followed by a most lovely day. About 9 A.M. a shower of these webs (formed not of single threads, but of perfect flakes, some near an inch broad and five or six long) was observed falling from very elevated regions, which continued without interruption during the whole of the day, and they fell with a velocity which showed they were considerably heavier than the atmosphere. When the most elevated station in the country where this was observed was ascended, the webs were still to be seen descending from above, and twinkling like stars in the sun, so as to draw the attention of the most incurious. The flakes of the web on this occasion hung so thick upon the hedges and trees, that basketsful might have been collected. No one doubts (he observes) but that these webs are the production of small spiders.

These aerial spiders are of two sizes, although of the same colour and general appearance; they are probably male and female. At all events they do not vary in size more than other species of spiders when the s.e.xes differ.

Has it been observed by naturalists that spiders eat their own webs? A large one that I used to feed when I was a lad with wasps, humble bees, and flesh-flies, used to do so occasionally. These insects were so strong that they often ruined the web in their efforts to escape, and the spider, quite aware of the rough customers it had to deal with, would often coil a cable of many folds round them before venturing to seize them with its mandibles. It would, if the web was ruined by the struggles of the insect, deliberately gorge it, which I accounted for by supposing that unless it did so it would not be able to secrete a sufficient supply of material to enable it to spin another.

The leaping spiders are another curious species, which construct no webs, although they spin threads. This spider may be seen frequently on the walls of houses, and if carefully watched it will be seen to range up and down in quest of small gnats and other insects; when it observes one it creeps to within about two inches of it, and backing slightly, it appears to hesitate for a moment, and then springs upon the fly, but always before doing so it fixes a thread to the spot from whence it springs, so that if the fly happens to be too strong for it, and is able to detach itself from the wall, they both remain suspended from the thread which has been previously fixed by the spider. This I have seen more than once.

They sometimes venture on larger game than the small gnats. One I was watching one day came upon one of the large _Ephemera_ (the Browndrake), an insect ten times as large as the spider, but after many points (for the setting of the spider before it springs is very similar in manner to that of a thoroughbred pointer [17]), in which it kept varying its position, apparently to gain some advantage, it gave up the attempt, discretion proving the better part of valour.

When botanizing on Erris Begh (in Connemara), this summer, I pa.s.sed through many spider-lines so strong as to offer a very sensible resistance before breaking. I don't remember to have ever before met with them so strong and tenacious, and the makers of optical instruments might there have found abundance of threads which I am told are valuable as _cross-wires_ for transit- instruments and theodolites. I did not meet with any of the spiders that had thrown out these lines, but judging of them by their works I suppose they must have been large ones.

One of your correspondents was inquiring a few weeks since how it was that a spider could throw out a long line between two trees or buildings at a considerable distance from each other. This seems to me to be very easily explained, if we reason from the a.n.a.logy of the flying spider. The spider seems to throw out a line, trusting it will catch somewhere or other, and it is able to ascertain it has done so by pulling at it, and when it finds that it is firmly fixed it starts off to travel upon it, as I have occasionally noticed.

Everyone has noticed how carefully the spider carries her coc.o.o.n of eggs attached to the vent, and how disconsolate she appears to be when deprived of them; but I don't think it is so generally known that some of the spiders carry their young on their backs for some time after they are hatched. I remember seeing an instance of this one day when on the Moors, grouse-shooting. I saw what seemed to be a very curious insect travelling on the ling (heather), and on stooping down to examine it I found it was a large spider, upon the back of which (in fact, all over it) were cl.u.s.tered some dozens of young ones, about the size of pins'

heads; she also seemed to guard them with great care, and seemed much afraid of losing them.

FINIS.

NOTES.

[1] There is a fish somewhat resembling the Brambling in the Dunsop, a tributary of the Hodder, where it is known by the name of the Bull Penk.

[2] My opinion that neither Trout nor Salmon sp.a.w.n every year is I think strongly corroborated by the fact, that previous to the Act of 1861 the London fish market was supplied with Salmon of the largest size, and of the best quality, in October, November, and December. When these fish were examined, it was found that the ovaries were but small, and the individual ova were not larger than mustard seed. These fish could not have sp.a.w.ned that season, nor would they have done so if left alive, if the growth of the ova in the ovaries is uniform--I mean if the growth of the ova is as great in one month as another--because in May and June the ova in a female Salmon is four times as large as these were in November.

Again, when the gas tank at Settle was emptied into the Ribble, in September, 1861, all the fish so far as was known were killed between that place and Mitton, Salmon as well as Par and Trout.

Supposing that Salmon sp.a.w.n every year, and that the Smolts come up the river, as Grilse in the summer of the same year in which they have gone to the sea in the spring, there ought to have been a great scarcity of both Grilse and Salmon in the Ribble in the year 1862, but so far was this from being the case, that both Grilse and Salmon were more abundant that season than they had been for some years previously, but there was a scarcity of both in 1863.

Again, when the Smolts were turned out of the breeding ponds at Dohulla, Galway, the experiment was looked upon as a failure because no Grilse returned the same season, not one having showed itself, but many came the summer after, proving pretty conclusively that in some rivers, at all events, the Smolt requires a year's residence in the sea before it returns as Grilse.

[3] In the evidence of Mr. George Hogarth, it is stated that he saw upwards of ninety Kelt fish in the mill lead at Grandholme, on the Don, May 6th.

[4] Salmon are said to produce 18,000 or 20,000 eggs each, and I have no doubt that a large Salmon will produce more, as one I examined a year or two ago, of about ten pounds weight, had a roe which weighed two pounds nine ounces, and the skin in which the eggs were enveloped (they were not in the loose state in which they are found just before exclusion) weighed three ounces, after all the eggs were washed from it; so that there were thirty-eight ounces of eggs. I weighed fifty of them, and found they weighed sixty-five grains. At that rate, thirty-eight ounces would give 12,788, and 300 lbs. 1,615,000; but as they would be much lighter when dried and potted than when taken from the belly of the fish, we may safely estimate that the 300 lbs. would contain 2,000,000, a prodigious number to pa.s.s through the hands of one tackle maker in a season.

[5] From "Loudon's Magazine of Natural History."