The Death and Life of the great American School System Part 6

CHAPTER TWO.

1 The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics had already written mathematics standards. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics had already written mathematics standards.

2 Lynne V. Cheney, "The End of History," Lynne V. Cheney, "The End of History," Wall Street Journal Wall Street Journal, October 20, 1994.

3 Karen Diegmueller, "Panel Unveils Standards for U.S. History," Karen Diegmueller, "Panel Unveils Standards for U.S. History," Education Week Education Week, November 2, 1994.

4 Los Angeles Times Los Angeles Times, "Now a History for the Rest of Us," October 27, 1994; Gary B. Nash, Charlotte Crabtree, and Ross E. Dunn, History on Trial: Culture Wars and the Teaching of the Past History on Trial: Culture Wars and the Teaching of the Past (New York: Knopf, 1997). (New York: Knopf, 1997).

5 U.S. Congress, Senate, U.S. Congress, Senate, Congressional Record Congressional Record (January 18, 1995), S1026-S1040. (January 18, 1995), S1026-S1040.

6 Diegmueller, "Panel Unveils Standards"; Diane Ravitch, "Standards in U.S. History: An a.s.sessment," Diegmueller, "Panel Unveils Standards"; Diane Ravitch, "Standards in U.S. History: An a.s.sessment," Education Week Education Week, December 7, 1994; Ravitch, letter to the editor, New York Times New York Times, February 14, 1995.

7 Diane Ravitch, "Revise, but Don't Abandon, the History Standards," Diane Ravitch, "Revise, but Don't Abandon, the History Standards," Chronicle of Higher Education, Chronicle of Higher Education, February 17, 1995. February 17, 1995.

8 Bill Clinton and Al Gore, Bill Clinton and Al Gore, Putting People First: How We Can All Change America Putting People First: How We Can All Change America (New York: Times Books, 1992), 85-86. (New York: Times Books, 1992), 85-86.

9 Diane Ravitch, "Social Studies Standards: Time for a Decisive Change," in Diane Ravitch, "Social Studies Standards: Time for a Decisive Change," in Reforming Education in Arkansas: Recommendations from the Koret Task Force, 2005 Reforming Education in Arkansas: Recommendations from the Koret Task Force, 2005 (Stanford, CA: Hoover Press, 2005), 69-74. The standards cited here are similar to those in most other states. (Stanford, CA: Hoover Press, 2005), 69-74. The standards cited here are similar to those in most other states.

10 Diane Ravitch, Diane Ravitch, The Language Police: How Pressure Groups Restrict What Students Learn The Language Police: How Pressure Groups Restrict What Students Learn (New York: Knopf, 2003), 124-125. For this book, I read the standards in English language arts and history/social studies in every state in the nation. (New York: Knopf, 2003), 124-125. For this book, I read the standards in English language arts and history/social studies in every state in the nation.

11 The law said that the state plans must include challenging academic standards, and that state plans had to win the approval of the U.S. secretary of education. However, by June 2003 every state plan was approved, even though many did not have challenging academic standards. Lynn Olson, "All States Get Federal Nod on Key Plans," The law said that the state plans must include challenging academic standards, and that state plans had to win the approval of the U.S. secretary of education. However, by June 2003 every state plan was approved, even though many did not have challenging academic standards. Lynn Olson, "All States Get Federal Nod on Key Plans," Education Week Education Week, June 18, 2003.

12 Josh Patashnik, "Reform School: The Education (On Education) of Barack Obama," Josh Patashnik, "Reform School: The Education (On Education) of Barack Obama," New Republic New Republic, March 26, 2008, 12-13.

13 David Brooks, "Who Will He Choose?" David Brooks, "Who Will He Choose?" New York Times New York Times, December 5, 2008; Was.h.i.+ngton Post Was.h.i.+ngton Post, "A Job for a Reformer," December 5, 2008; Chicago Tribune Chicago Tribune, "Obama and Schoolkids," December 9, 2008. Republicans recognized that President Obama was embracing some of the GOP's core beliefs, including school choice, merit pay, and accountability. Richard N. Bond, Bill McInturff, and Alex Bratty, "A Chance to Say Yes: The GOP and Obama Can Agree on School Reform," Was.h.i.+ngton Post Was.h.i.+ngton Post, August 2, 2009.

14 Diane Ravitch, Diane Ravitch, The Troubled Crusade: American Education, 1945-1980 The Troubled Crusade: American Education, 1945-1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 228-266. (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 228-266.

15 Edward B. Fiske, "College Entry Test Scores Drop Sharply," Edward B. Fiske, "College Entry Test Scores Drop Sharply," New York Times New York Times, September 7, 1975.

16 College Entrance Examination Board, College Entrance Examination Board, On Further Examination: Report of the Advisory Panel on the Scholastic Apt.i.tude Test Score Decline On Further Examination: Report of the Advisory Panel on the Scholastic Apt.i.tude Test Score Decline (New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1977), 26-31. (New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1977), 26-31.

17 President's Commission on Foreign Language and International Studies, President's Commission on Foreign Language and International Studies, Strength Through Wisdom: A Critique of U.S. Capability Strength Through Wisdom: A Critique of U.S. Capability (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979); National Science Foundation and U.S. Department of Education, (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979); National Science Foundation and U.S. Department of Education, Science and Engineering Education for the 1980s and Beyond Science and Engineering Education for the 1980s and Beyond (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1980). (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1980).

18 For his perspective on For his perspective on A Nation at Risk A Nation at Risk, see Terrel H. Bell, The Thirteenth Man: A Reagan Cabinet Memoi The Thirteenth Man: A Reagan Cabinet Memoir (New York: Free Press, 1988), 114-143.

19 National Commission on Excellence in Education, National Commission on Excellence in Education, A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983), 5-6. (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983), 5-6.

20 Ibid., 8. Ibid., 8.

21 Ibid., 8-9. Ibid., 8-9.

22 Ibid., 18-22. Ibid., 18-22.

23 Ibid., 24-27. Ibid., 24-27.

24 Ibid., 25. Ibid., 25.

25 Ibid., 30. Ibid., 30.

26 Ibid., 7. Ibid., 7.

27 David C. Berliner and Bruce J. Biddle, David C. Berliner and Bruce J. Biddle, The Manufactured Crisis: Myths, Fraud, and the Attack on America's Public Schools The Manufactured Crisis: Myths, Fraud, and the Attack on America's Public Schools (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1995), 3-5, 139-140, 184. (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1995), 3-5, 139-140, 184.

28 See, for example, Richard Rothstein, "'A Nation at Risk' Twenty-five Years Later," Cato Unbound, April 7, 2008, See, for example, Richard Rothstein, "'A Nation at Risk' Twenty-five Years Later," Cato Unbound, April 7, 2008, www.cato-unbound.org/2008/04/07/richard-rothstein/a-nation-at-risk-twenty-five-years-later/.

CHAPTER THREE.

1 Marshall S. Smith and Jennifer O'Day, "Systemic School Reform," in Marshall S. Smith and Jennifer O'Day, "Systemic School Reform," in The Politics of Curriculum and Testing: The 1990 Yearbook of the Politics of Education a.s.sociation The Politics of Curriculum and Testing: The 1990 Yearbook of the Politics of Education a.s.sociation, ed. Susan H. Fuhrman and Betty Malen (London: Falmer, 1991), 233-267. See also Maris A. Vinovskis, "An a.n.a.lysis of the Concept and Uses of Systemic Educational Reform," American Educational Research Journal American Educational Research Journal 33, no. 1 (Spring 1996): 53-85. 33, no. 1 (Spring 1996): 53-85.

2 Diane Ravitch, "National Standards and Curriculum Reform: A View from the Department of Education," Diane Ravitch, "National Standards and Curriculum Reform: A View from the Department of Education," Na.s.sP Bulletin Na.s.sP Bulletin, December 1992.

3 The Bloomberg administration dissolved the administrative structures of the community school districts after the mayor won control of the public schools in 2002. The district lines remained on paper, but the districts were no longer functioning administrative ent.i.ties. The Bloomberg administration dissolved the administrative structures of the community school districts after the mayor won control of the public schools in 2002. The district lines remained on paper, but the districts were no longer functioning administrative ent.i.ties.

4 Joyce Purnick, "Alvarado Resigns as Schools Chief, Offering Apology," Joyce Purnick, "Alvarado Resigns as Schools Chief, Offering Apology," New York Times New York Times, May 12, 1984. See also Paul Teske et al., "Public School Choice: A Status Report," in City Schools: Lessons from New York City Schools: Lessons from New York, ed. Diane Ravitch and Joseph P. Viteritti (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), 313-338.

5 Kenneth Goodman, Kenneth Goodman, What's Whole in Whole Language? What's Whole in Whole Language? (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1986), 25, 37-38. (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1986), 25, 37-38.

6 Jeanne S. Chall, Jeanne S. Chall, Learning to Read: The Great Debate Learning to Read: The Great Debate (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967). See also Diane Ravitch, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967). See also Diane Ravitch, Left Back: A Century of Failed School Reforms Left Back: A Century of Failed School Reforms (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 353-361, 443-448. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 353-361, 443-448.

7 National Academy of Education, National Academy of Education, Becoming a Nation of Readers: The Report of the Commission on Reading Becoming a Nation of Readers: The Report of the Commission on Reading (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, 1985), 37. (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, 1985), 37.

8 See Catherine E. Snow, M. Susan Burns, and Peg Griffin, eds., See Catherine E. Snow, M. Susan Burns, and Peg Griffin, eds., Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1998); National Reading Panel, (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1998); National Reading Panel, Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based a.s.sessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based a.s.sessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000); G. Reid Lyon and Louisa C. Moats, "Critical Conceptual and Methodological Considerations in Reading Intervention Research," (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000); G. Reid Lyon and Louisa C. Moats, "Critical Conceptual and Methodological Considerations in Reading Intervention Research," Journal of Learning Disabilities Journal of Learning Disabilities 30, no. 6 (November- December 1997): 578-588; Louisa C. Moats, 30, no. 6 (November- December 1997): 578-588; Louisa C. Moats, Teaching Reading IS Rocket Science Teaching Reading IS Rocket Science (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: American Federation of Teachers, 1999). (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: American Federation of Teachers, 1999).

9 For examples of strategy instruction, see Stephanie Harvey and Anne Goudvis, For examples of strategy instruction, see Stephanie Harvey and Anne Goudvis, Strategies That Work: Teaching Comprehension to Enhance Understanding Strategies That Work: Teaching Comprehension to Enhance Understanding (Portland, ME: Stenhouse, 2000). See also AUSSIE: Partners in Professional Development, "Literacy Resources," (Portland, ME: Stenhouse, 2000). See also AUSSIE: Partners in Professional Development, "Literacy Resources," www.aussiepd.com/resources/literacy.

10 Lori Jamison Rog, Lori Jamison Rog, Guided Reading Basics: Organizing, Managing, and Implementing a Balanced Literacy Program in K-3 Guided Reading Basics: Organizing, Managing, and Implementing a Balanced Literacy Program in K-3 (Portland, ME: Stenhouse, 2003); Sewell Chan, "By the Script," (Portland, ME: Stenhouse, 2003); Sewell Chan, "By the Script," New York Times New York Times, July 31, 2005; Meredith I. Honig, New Directions in Education Policy Implementation: Confronting Complexity New Directions in Education Policy Implementation: Confronting Complexity (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2006), 38-44. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2006), 38-44.

11 P. David Pearson and Janice A. Dole, "Explicit Comprehension Instruction: A Review of Research and a New Conceptualization of Instruction," P. David Pearson and Janice A. Dole, "Explicit Comprehension Instruction: A Review of Research and a New Conceptualization of Instruction," Elementary School Journal Elementary School Journal 88, no. 2 (November 1987): 162. 88, no. 2 (November 1987): 162.

12 Richard F. Elmore and Deanna Burney, "Investing in Teacher Learning: Staff Development and Instructional Improvement," in Richard F. Elmore and Deanna Burney, "Investing in Teacher Learning: Staff Development and Instructional Improvement," in Teaching as the Learning Profession: Handbook of Policy and Practice Teaching as the Learning Profession: Handbook of Policy and Practice, ed. Linda Darling-Hammond and Gary Sykes (San Francisco: Jossey-Ba.s.s, 1999), 265.

13 The papers produced by this federally funded project can be found at The papers produced by this federally funded project can be found at www.lrdc.pitt.edu/hplc/hplc.html. The cost of the project was provided by Grover Whitehurst, director of the Inst.i.tute of Education Sciences, in an e-mail to the author, May 15, 2007.

14 The figures vary for the amount of the district's budget dedicated to professional development, with some studies saying 3 percent, while Alvarado told Hedrick Smith on the PBS program The figures vary for the amount of the district's budget dedicated to professional development, with some studies saying 3 percent, while Alvarado told Hedrick Smith on the PBS program Making Schools Work Making Schools Work that the amount was "over 12 percent." See that the amount was "over 12 percent." See www.pbs.org/makingschoolswork/dwr/ny/alvarado.html.

15 New York City Department of Education, New York City Department of Education, Annual School Reports, 1987-1988 Annual School Reports, 1987-1988.

16 Lauren Resnick, Anthony J. Alvarado, and Richard F. Elmore, "Developing and Implementing High-Performance Learning Communities," Lauren Resnick, Anthony J. Alvarado, and Richard F. Elmore, "Developing and Implementing High-Performance Learning Communities," Solicitation Proposal RC-96-1370 Solicitation Proposal RC-96-1370, U.S. Department of Education, 1995, 1-2.

17 Elmore and Burney, "Continuous Improvement in Community District #2, New York City," High Performance Learning Communities Project, University of Pittsburgh, 1998, 1, Elmore and Burney, "Continuous Improvement in Community District #2, New York City," High Performance Learning Communities Project, University of Pittsburgh, 1998, 1, www.lrdc.pitt.edu/hplc/Publications/ContinuousImprove.pdf.

18 Lauren Resnick and Michael Harwell, "High Performance Learning Communities District 2 Achievement," HPLC Project, 1998, 19, Lauren Resnick and Michael Harwell, "High Performance Learning Communities District 2 Achievement," HPLC Project, 1998, 19, www.lrdc.pitt.edu/hplc/Publications/Achieve%20I%20Final.pdf.

19 Michael Harwell et al., "Professional Development and the Achievement Gap in Community School District #2," HPLC Project, 2000, 21-22, Michael Harwell et al., "Professional Development and the Achievement Gap in Community School District #2," HPLC Project, 2000, 21-22, www.lrdc.pitt.edu/hplc/Publications/Achievement%20III.pdf.

20 Elmore and Burney, "School Variation and Systemic Instructional Improvement in Community School District #2, New York City," HPLC Project, 1997, 5-6, Elmore and Burney, "School Variation and Systemic Instructional Improvement in Community School District #2, New York City," HPLC Project, 1997, 5-6, www.lrdc.pitt.edu/hplc/Publications/School%20Variation.pdf.

21 Ibid., 4, 12-13. Ibid., 4, 12-13.

22 Ibid., 25-28. Ibid., 25-28.

23 High Performance Learning Communities Project, "Final Report," High Performance Learning Communities Project, "Final Report," Contract #RC-96-137002 Contract #RC-96-137002, Office of Education Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, 2001, 27-28, www.lrdc.pitt.edu/hplc/Publications/HPLC_FinalReport_Sept2001.pdf.

24 Louisa C. Spencer, "Progressivism's Hidden Failure," Louisa C. Spencer, "Progressivism's Hidden Failure," Education Week Education Week, February 28, 2001.

25 Lois Weiner, "Standardization's Stifling Impact," Lois Weiner, "Standardization's Stifling Impact," Education Week Education Week, February 28, 2001.

26 Anthony J. Alvarado and Elaine Fink, letter to the editor, "Critiques of District 2 Are Seen as Baseless," Anthony J. Alvarado and Elaine Fink, letter to the editor, "Critiques of District 2 Are Seen as Baseless," Education Week Education Week, March 28, 2001; Sh.e.l.ley Harwayne, letter to the editor, "District 2: 'Results Speak for Themselves,'" Education Week Education Week, April 4, 2001.

27 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, "Exploring Krypto," National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, "Exploring Krypto," http://illuminations.nctm.org/LessonDetail.aspx?id=L803.

28 Matthew Clavel, "How Not to Teach Math," Matthew Clavel, "How Not to Teach Math," City Journal City Journal, March 7, 2003; Barry Garelick, "Discovery Learning in Math: Exercises Versus Problems," Nonpartisan Education Review/Essays Nonpartisan Education Review/Essays 5, no. 2 (2009), 5, no. 2 (2009), www.npe.ednews.org/Review/Essays/v5n2.htm.

29 Ronald Drenger, "Math Profs Rail Against Dist. 2 Methods," Ronald Drenger, "Math Profs Rail Against Dist. 2 Methods," Tribeca Trib Tribeca Trib, July/August 2001; the name of the group-NYC HOLD-is an acronym for "Honest Open Logical Decisions" on Mathematics Education Reform; see www.nychold.com.

30 Lois Weiner, "Construction of District 2's Exemplary Status: When Research and Public Policy Elide," paper, Annual Conference, American Educational Research a.s.sociation, April 2002, Lois Weiner, "Construction of District 2's Exemplary Status: When Research and Public Policy Elide," paper, Annual Conference, American Educational Research a.s.sociation, April 2002, www.nychold.com/weiner-aera-02.html; Weiner, "Research or 'Cheerleading'? Scholars.h.i.+p on Community School District 2, New York City," Education Policy a.n.a.lysis Archives Education Policy a.n.a.lysis Archives 11, no. 27 (August 7, 2003). 11, no. 27 (August 7, 2003).

31 Lauren B. Resnick, "Reforms, Research and Variability: A Reply to Lois Weiner," Lauren B. Resnick, "Reforms, Research and Variability: A Reply to Lois Weiner," Education Policy a.n.a.lysis Archives Education Policy a.n.a.lysis Archives 11, no. 28 (August 7, 2003); see Weiner's response to Resnick: Weiner, "Reply to Resnick's 'Reforms, Research and Variability,'" 11, no. 28 (August 7, 2003); see Weiner's response to Resnick: Weiner, "Reply to Resnick's 'Reforms, Research and Variability,'" Education Policy a.n.a.lysis Archives Education Policy a.n.a.lysis Archives 11, no. 28c 11, no. 28c ( (February 2, 2004).

32 Public Broadcasting Service, Public Broadcasting Service, Making Schools Work Making Schools Work, with Hedrick Smith, www.pbs.org/makingschoolswork/.

33 Teske et al., "Public School Choice: A Status Report." Teske et al., "Public School Choice: A Status Report."

34 The source of the census data for 1990 and 2000 is an Internet tool called Social Explorer, created by demographer Andrew Beveridge at Queens College of the City University of New York. Social Explorer permits the user to identify specific census tracts and compare them along different demographic dimensions. Beveridge and Jordan Segall of Queens College a.n.a.lyzed District 2 and citywide census data for 1990 and 2000. Some of the data may also be found at NYC Department of City Planning, "New York City Public Schools: Demographic and Enrollment Trends, 1990-2002, Manhattan," 47, The source of the census data for 1990 and 2000 is an Internet tool called Social Explorer, created by demographer Andrew Beveridge at Queens College of the City University of New York. Social Explorer permits the user to identify specific census tracts and compare them along different demographic dimensions. Beveridge and Jordan Segall of Queens College a.n.a.lyzed District 2 and citywide census data for 1990 and 2000. Some of the data may also be found at NYC Department of City Planning, "New York City Public Schools: Demographic and Enrollment Trends, 1990-2002, Manhattan," 47, www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/pub/schlmanhattan.pdf.

35 Ibid. Ibid.

36 According to New York State Education Department data, from 1988 to 1998 the proportion of white students increased from 26 percent to 31.2 percent (in the rest of the city, white enrollment declined from 21 percent to 16 percent). The proportion of Hispanic students declined from 24.5 percent to 21.1 percent (in the city system, it increased from 34 percent to 37 percent). Asian students remained constant at one-third (triple the proportion in the city schools). The proportion of African American students declined from 15.4 percent to 13.9 percent (in the city system, it dropped from 39 percent to 36 percent). According to New York State Education Department data, from 1988 to 1998 the proportion of white students increased from 26 percent to 31.2 percent (in the rest of the city, white enrollment declined from 21 percent to 16 percent). The proportion of Hispanic students declined from 24.5 percent to 21.1 percent (in the city system, it increased from 34 percent to 37 percent). Asian students remained constant at one-third (triple the proportion in the city schools). The proportion of African American students declined from 15.4 percent to 13.9 percent (in the city system, it dropped from 39 percent to 36 percent).

37 The source of the achievement data was the New York State Department of Education. Similar gaps existed on the city tests from 1995 to 1998. The source of the achievement data was the New York State Department of Education. Similar gaps existed on the city tests from 1995 to 1998.

38 District 26 in Queens in New York City was demographically and economically similar to District 2. These two affluent districts outperformed the rest of the city, though District 26 generally outperformed District 2 and had smaller achievement gaps. In District 26, 60 percent of African American and Hispanic students met state standards in reading in fourth grade in 1999, compared to 78.5 percent of Asian students and 80.4 percent of white students; in fourth-grade mathematics, 69 percent of African American students and 76 percent of Hispanic students met standards, compared to 89 percent of whites and 91 percent of Asians. In eighth-grade reading, 81 percent of Asian students and 76 percent of white students met the standards, compared to 53 percent of African American students and 55 percent of Hispanic students; in eighth-grade mathematics, 79.5 percent of Asian students and 61.3 percent of white students met the standards, compared to 33 percent of African American and Hispanic students. Source: New York State Education Department, "Performance of Students Scoring in ELA and Math Grade 4 and 8 by Ethnicity," 1999. District 26 in Queens in New York City was demographically and economically similar to District 2. These two affluent districts outperformed the rest of the city, though District 26 generally outperformed District 2 and had smaller achievement gaps. In District 26, 60 percent of African American and Hispanic students met state standards in reading in fourth grade in 1999, compared to 78.5 percent of Asian students and 80.4 percent of white students; in fourth-grade mathematics, 69 percent of African American students and 76 percent of Hispanic students met standards, compared to 89 percent of whites and 91 percent of Asians. In eighth-grade reading, 81 percent of Asian students and 76 percent of white students met the standards, compared to 53 percent of African American students and 55 percent of Hispanic students; in eighth-grade mathematics, 79.5 percent of Asian students and 61.3 percent of white students met the standards, compared to 33 percent of African American and Hispanic students. Source: New York State Education Department, "Performance of Students Scoring in ELA and Math Grade 4 and 8 by Ethnicity," 1999.

CHAPTER FOUR.

1 California Department of Education, Educational Demographics Unit-CBEDS; data available at Ed-Data: Education Data Partners.h.i.+p, California Department of Education, Educational Demographics Unit-CBEDS; data available at Ed-Data: Education Data Partners.h.i.+p, www.ed-data.k12.ca.us.

2 Ann Bradley, "San Diego Teachers Strike in Dispute Over Pay," Ann Bradley, "San Diego Teachers Strike in Dispute Over Pay," Education Week Education Week, February 7, 1996.

3 Maureen Magee, "Similar Dramas Play Out at S.D., L.A. Schools," Maureen Magee, "Similar Dramas Play Out at S.D., L.A. Schools," San Diego Union-Tribune San Diego Union-Tribune, June 5, 2000.

4 Salary schedule provided by Camille Zombro, chapter leader of the San Diego Education a.s.sociation, in an e-mail to author, July 9, 2009. Salary schedule provided by Camille Zombro, chapter leader of the San Diego Education a.s.sociation, in an e-mail to author, July 9, 2009.

5 Jane Hannaway and Maggie Stanislawski, "Flip-Flops in School Reform: An Evolutionary Theory of Decentralization," in Jane Hannaway and Maggie Stanislawski, "Flip-Flops in School Reform: An Evolutionary Theory of Decentralization," in Urban School Reform: Lessons from San Diego Urban School Reform: Lessons from San Diego, ed. Frederick M. Hess (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press, 2005), 54.

6 Ibid., 57. Ibid., 57.

7 Bess Keller, "Peer-Coaching Plan Approved in San Diego," Bess Keller, "Peer-Coaching Plan Approved in San Diego," Education Week Education Week, May 19, 1999.

8 Maureen Magee, "Former Princ.i.p.als Win Case Against District," Maureen Magee, "Former Princ.i.p.als Win Case Against District," San Diego Union-Tribune San Diego Union-Tribune, November 6, 2004.

9 San Diego City Schools, "Blueprint for Student Success in a Standards-Based System: Supporting Student Achievement in an Integrated Learning Environment," March 14, 2000, 1, San Diego City Schools, "Blueprint for Student Success in a Standards-Based System: Supporting Student Achievement in an Integrated Learning Environment," March 14, 2000, 1, www.sandi.net/initiatives/ciia/000314blueprint.pdf.

10 Richard F. Elmore and Deanna Burney, "Investing in Teacher Learning: Staff Development and Instructional Improvement," in Richard F. Elmore and Deanna Burney, "Investing in Teacher Learning: Staff Development and Instructional Improvement," in Teaching as the Learning Profession: Handbook of Policy and Practice Teaching as the Learning Profession: Handbook of Policy and Practice, ed. Linda Darling-Hammond and Gary Sykes (San Francisco: Jossey-Ba.s.s, 1999), 285; see also 274-279.

11 Jeff Archer, "Wary Foundations Tie Grants to Leaders.h.i.+p Stability," Jeff Archer, "Wary Foundations Tie Grants to Leaders.h.i.+p Stability," Education Week Education Week, February 12, 2003.

12 Maureen Magee, "Sweeping School Reform Is Approved: 3-2 Decision Made Despite Thousands of Protesters," Maureen Magee, "Sweeping School Reform Is Approved: 3-2 Decision Made Despite Thousands of Protesters," San Diego Union-Tribune San Diego Union-Tribune, March 15, 2000.

13 Micah Sachs, "The Hardest Job in America?" Micah Sachs, "The Hardest Job in America?" San Diego Jewish Journal San Diego Jewish Journal, September 2003.

14 Lea Hubbard, Hugh Mehan, and Mary Kay Stein, Lea Hubbard, Hugh Mehan, and Mary Kay Stein, Reform As Learning: School Reform, Organizational Culture, and Community Politics in San Diego Reform As Learning: School Reform, Organizational Culture, and Community Politics in San Diego (New York: Routledge, 2006), 173. (New York: Routledge, 2006), 173.

15 Hannaway and Stanislawski, "Flip-Flops in School Reform,"55-56. Hannaway and Stanislawski, "Flip-Flops in School Reform,"55-56.

16 Amy M. Hightower, Amy M. Hightower, San Diego's Big Boom: District Bureaucracy Supports Culture of Learning San Diego's Big Boom: District Bureaucracy Supports Culture of Learning (Seattle: Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy, University of Was.h.i.+ngton, 2002), 8, 11. (Seattle: Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy, University of Was.h.i.+ngton, 2002), 8, 11.

17 Hannaway and Stanislawski, "Flip-Flops in School Reform," 64-65; see also Darling-Hammond and Sykes, Hannaway and Stanislawski, "Flip-Flops in School Reform," 64-65; see also Darling-Hammond and Sykes, Teaching as the Learning Profession Teaching as the Learning Profession.

18 Elmore and Burney, "Investing in Teacher Learning," 269. Elmore and Burney, "Investing in Teacher Learning," 269.

19 Ibid., 270-271. Ibid., 270-271.

20 Matt Potter, "It Was the Biggest Mystery," Matt Potter, "It Was the Biggest Mystery," San Diego Reader San Diego Reader, October 24, 2002.

21 Joe Williams, "The Labor-Management Showdown," in Joe Williams, "The Labor-Management Showdown," in Urban School Reform Urban School Reform, 46.

22 Maureen Magee, "Bersin: Alvarado's Role to Be Curtailed," Maureen Magee, "Bersin: Alvarado's Role to Be Curtailed," San Diego Union-Tribune San Diego Union-Tribune, December 6, 2002; Chris Moran, "Chief S.D. School Reformer to Leave: Superintendent Calls Departure 'Mutual,'" San Diego Union-Tribune San Diego Union-Tribune, February 5, 2003.

23 American Inst.i.tutes for Research, American Inst.i.tutes for Research, Evaluation of the Blueprint for Student Success in a Standards-based System Evaluation of the Blueprint for Student Success in a Standards-based System (Palo Alto, CA: AIR, 2002), II-10; AIR, (Palo Alto, CA: AIR, 2002), II-10; AIR, Evaluation of the Blueprint for Student Success in a Standards-Based System: Year 2 Interim Report Evaluation of the Blueprint for Student Success in a Standards-Based System: Year 2 Interim Report (Palo Alto, CA: AIR, 2003); Chris Moran, "Report Card on Reform Just So-So," (Palo Alto, CA: AIR, 2003); Chris Moran, "Report Card on Reform Just So-So," San Diego Union-Tribune San Diego Union-Tribune, May 13, 2003; Hugh Mehan, Lea Hubbard, and Mary Kay Stein, "When Reforms Travel: The Sequel," Journal of Educational Change Journal of Educational Change 6, no. 4 (2005): 329-362. 6, no. 4 (2005): 329-362.