The Story of Great Inventions Part 9

In the telegraphic circuit only one connecting wire is needed. The earth, being a good conductor of electricity, is used as part of the circuit. It is necessary, therefore, to make a ground connection at each end of the line, the instruments being connected between the line wire and the earth. For long-distance telegraphy a current from a dynamo is used instead of a battery current. Fig. 64 shows a simple telegraphic circuit.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 64--A SIMPLE TELEGRAPHIC CIRCUIT Two keys are shown at _K K_, and two switches at _S S_. When one key is to be used the switch at that station must be open, and the switch at the other station closed.]

A telegraphic message travels with the speed of light, for the speed of electricity and the speed of light are the same. A telegraphic signal would go more than seven times around the earth in one second if it travelled on one continuous wire. The relays that must be used, however, cause some delay.

In 1835 Morse's experimental telegraph was completed, and in 1837 it was exhibited to the public, but seven years more pa.s.sed before a line was established for public use. Aid from Congress was necessary. Going to Was.h.i.+ngton, Morse exhibited his instrument in the halls of the Capitol, sending messages through ten miles of wire wound on a reel. The invention was ridiculed, but the inventor did not despair. A bill for an appropriation to establish a telegraphic line between Was.h.i.+ngton and Baltimore pa.s.sed the House by a small majority. The last day of the session came. Ten o'clock at night, two hours before adjournment, and the Senate had not acted. A senator advised Morse to go home and think no more of it, saying that the Senate was not in sympathy with his project. He went to his hotel, counted his money, and found that he could pay his bill, buy his ticket home, and have thirty-seven cents left. All through his work he had firmly believed that a Higher Power was directing his work, and bringing to the world, through his invention, a new and uplifting force; and so when all seemed lost he did not lose heart.

In the morning a friend, Miss Ellsworth, called and offered her congratulations that the bill had been pa.s.sed by the Senate and thirty thousand dollars appropriated for the telegraph. Being the first to bring the news of his success, Mr. Morse promised her that the first message over the new line should be hers. In about a year the line was completed, and Miss Ellsworth dictated the now famous message: "What hath G.o.d wrought!"

Soon afterward the Democratic Convention, in session in Baltimore, received a telegraphic message from Senator Silas Wright, in Was.h.i.+ngton, declining the nomination for the Vice-Presidency, which had been tendered him. The convention refused to accept a message sent by telegraph, and sent a committee to Was.h.i.+ngton to investigate. The message was confirmed, and Morse and his telegraph became famous. Fig.

65 shows the first telegraph instrument used for commercial work.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 65--FIRST TELEGRAPH INSTRUMENT USED FOR COMMERCIAL WORK Photo by Claudy.]

The desire to telegraph across the ocean came with the introduction of the telegraph on land. Bare wires in the air with gla.s.s insulators at the poles are used for land telegraphy, but bare wires in the water could not be used, for ocean water will conduct electricity. Something was needed to cover the wire, protect it from the water, and prevent the escape of the electric current. Just when it was needed such a substance was discovered. In 1843, when Morse was working on his telegraph, it was found that the juice of a certain kind of tree growing in the Malayan Archipelago formed a substance somewhat like rubber but more durable, and especially suited to the insulation of wires in water.

This substance is gutta-percha. Ocean cables are made of a number of copper wires, each wire covered with gutta-percha, the wires twisted together and protected with tarred rope yarn and an outer layer of galvanized iron wires. The earth is used for the return circuit, as in the land telegraph.

Duplex Telegraphy

The telegraph was a success, but many improvements were yet to be made.

Economy of construction was the thing sought for. To make one wire do the work of two was accomplished by the invention of the duplex system.

In duplex telegraphy two messages may be sent in opposite directions over the same wire at the same time. Let us take a look at some of the methods by which this is accomplished.

One method with a long name but very simple in its working is the differential system (Fig. 66). In the differential system the current from the home battery divides into two branches pa.s.sing around the coils of the electromagnet in opposite directions. Now if these two branches are so arranged that the currents flowing through them are equal, the relay will not be magnetized, because one current would tend to make the end A a north pole, and the other current would tend to make the same end a south pole. The result is that the relay coil is not magnetized, and does not attract the armature. But the current from the distant battery comes over one of these branches only, and will magnetize the relay. Hence, with a similar arrangement at the second station, two messages may be sent at the same time in opposite directions.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 66--HOW TWO MESSAGES ARE SENT OVER ONE WIRE AT THE SAME TIME]

Another method not quite so simple in principle is the bridge method.

When the key at station _A_ (see Fig. 67) is closed, the current from the battery at station _A_ divides at _C_, and if the resistances _1_ and _2_ are equal, and the resistance _3_ is equal to the resistance of the line, no current will flow through the sounder. But if a current comes over the line from the distant station this current divides at _D_, and a part goes through the sounder, causing it to click. The sounder is not affected, therefore, by the current from the home battery, but is affected by the current from the distant battery.

Therefore, a message may be sent and another received at the same time.

If there is a similar arrangement at the other station, two messages may travel over the line in opposite directions at the same time.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 67--HOW TWO MESSAGES ARE SENT OVER ONE WIRE AT THE SAME TIME. BRIDGE METHOD]

The differential method is used in land telegraphy, the bridge method almost exclusively in submarine telegraphy. The next step was a quadruplex system, by means of which four messages may be transmitted over one wire at the same time. The first quadruplex system was invented by Edison in 1874, and in four years it saved more than half a million dollars. Other systems have been invented which make it possible to send even a larger number of messages at one time over a single wire.

The Telephone

The idea of "talking by telegraph" began to grow in the minds of inventors soon after the Morse instrument came into use. The sound of the voice causes vibrations in the air. (This is simply shown in the string telephone. This telephone is made by stretching a thin membrane, such as thin sheepskin, or gold-beaters' skin, over a round frame of wood or metal. Two such instruments are connected by a string, the end of the string being fastened to the middle of the stretched membrane.

The sound of the voice causes this membrane to vibrate. As the membrane moves rapidly back and forth, it pulls and releases the string, and so causes the membrane at the other end to vibrate and give out the sound.

This is the actual carrying of the sound vibrations along the string.) In the telephone it is not sound vibrations but an electric current that travels over the line wire. The telephone message, therefore, travels with the speed of electricity, not with the speed of sound. If it travelled with the speed of sound in air, a message spoken in Chicago would be heard in New York one hour later; but we know that a message spoken in Chicago may be heard in New York the instant it is spoken.

The telephone, like the telegraph, depends on the electromagnet. The thought of inventors at first was to make the vibrations of a thin membrane, caused by the sound of the voice, open and close a telegraphic circuit. An electromagnet at the other end of the line would cause a thin membrane with a piece of soft iron attached to it to vibrate, just as the magnet in the telegraph receiver pulls and releases the soft-iron armature as the circuit is made and broken. The thin membrane caused to vibrate in this way would give out the sound. A telephone on this principle was invented by Philip Reis, a schoolmaster in Germany.

The transmitter was carved out of wood in the shape of a human ear, the thin membrane being in the position of the ear-drum. Musical sounds and even words were transmitted by this telephone, but it could never have been successful as a practical working telephone. The membrane in the receiver would vibrate with the same speed as the membrane in the transmitter, but sound depends on something more than speed of vibration.

The Bell telephone, as known to-day, began with a study of the human ear. Alexander Graham Bell was a teacher of the deaf. His aim was to teach the deaf to use spoken language, and for this purpose he wished to learn the nature of the vibrations caused by the voice. His plan was to cause the ear itself to trace on smoked gla.s.s the waves produced by the different letters of the alphabet, and to use these tracings in teaching the deaf. Accordingly, a human ear was mounted on a suitable support, the stirrup-bone removed, leaving two bones attached, and a stylus of wheat straw attached to one of the bones. The ear-drum, caused to vibrate by the sound, moved the two small bones and the pointer of straw, so that when he sang or talked to the ear delicate tracings were made on the gla.s.s.

This experiment suggested to Mr. Bell that a membrane heavier than the ear-drum would move a heavier weight. If the ear-drum, no thicker than tissue-paper, could move the bones of the ear, a heavier membrane might vibrate a piece of iron in front of an electromagnet. He was at the same time devising a telegraph for transmitting messages by means of musical sounds. In this telegraph he was using an electromagnet in the transmitter and another electromagnet in the receiver. He attached the soft-iron armature of each electromagnet to a stretched membrane of gold-beaters' skin, expecting that the sound of his voice would cause the membrane of the transmitter to vibrate, and that, by means of the electromagnets, the membrane of the receiver would be made to vibrate in the same way (Fig. 68). At first he was disappointed, but after making some changes in the armatures a distinct sound was heard in the receiver. Later the membrane was discarded, and a thin iron disk used with better effect.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 68--FIRST BELL TELEPHONE RECEIVER AND TRANSMITTER The receiver is on the left in the picture. A thin membrane of gold-beaters' skin tightly stretched and fastened with a cord can be seen on the end of the transmitter and of the receiver. An electromagnet is also shown over each membrane. This thin membrane, with a piece of soft iron attached, was used in place of the soft-iron disk of the modern receiver.]

The story of Bell's struggles might seem like the repet.i.tion of the life story of many another great inventor. He knew that he had discovered something of great value to the world. He devoted his time to the perfecting of the telephone, neglecting his professional work and finally giving it up, that he might give his whole time to his invention. He was forced to endure poverty and ridicule. He was called "a crank who says he can talk through a wire." Men said his invention could never be made practical. Even after he succeeded in finding a few purchasers and some of the telephones were in actual use, people were slow to adopt it. The idea of talking at a piece of iron and hearing another piece of iron talk seemed like a kind of witchcraft.

In the telephone we see another use of the electromagnet. A very thin iron disk near the poles of an electromagnet forms the telephone receiver (Fig. 69). An electric current travels over the telephone wire.

If the current grows stronger, the magnet is made stronger and pulls the disk toward it. If the current grows weaker, the magnet becomes weaker and does not pull so hard on the disk. The disk then springs back from the magnet. If these changes take place rapidly the disk moves back and forth rapidly and gives out a sound. The sound of the voice at the other end of the line sets the disk in the mouthpiece vibrating. The vibrations of this disk cause the changes in the electric current flowing over the line-wire, and the changes in the electric current cause the disk of the receiver to vibrate in exactly the same way as the disk at the mouthpiece. Thus the words spoken into the mouthpiece may be heard at the receiver.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 69--A TELEPHONE RECEIVER]

The transmitter used by Bell was like the receiver. Two receivers from the common telephone connected by two wires may be used as a telephone without batteries. Fig. 70 shows a complete telephone made of two receivers connected by two wires. The disk in one receiver which is now used as a transmitter is made to vibrate by the sound of the voice. Now when a piece of iron moves back and forth in a magnetic field it strengthens and weakens the field. So the magnetic field in the transmitter is rapidly changed by the movement of the iron disk. Now we have found that whenever a coil of wire is in a changing magnetic field a current is induced in the coil. The small coil in the transmitter, therefore, has a current induced in it. We have also found that when the magnetic field is made stronger the induced current flows in one direction, and when the field is made weaker the current flows in the opposite direction. Since the field in the transmitter is made alternately stronger and weaker, the current in the coil flows first in one direction, then in the opposite direction--that is, we have an alternating current. This alternating current, of course, flows over the line-wire and through the coil in the receiver. In the receiver the alternating current will alternately strengthen and weaken the magnetic field, and as it does so the pull of the magnet on the iron disk is strengthened and weakened. The iron disk in the receiver, therefore, vibrates in exactly the same way as the disk in the transmitter, and so gives out a sound just like that which is acting on the transmitter.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 70--TWO RECEIVERS USED AS A COMPLETE TELEPHONE]

In the Blake transmitter, which is now commonly used, the disk moves a pencil of carbon which presses against another pencil of carbon. This varies the pressure between the two pencils of carbon. A battery current flows through the two carbons, and as the pressure of the carbons changes the strength of the current changes. When the carbons are pressed together more closely the current is stronger. When the pressure is less the current is weaker. We have, then, a varying current through the carbons. This current flows through the primary coil of an induction-coil, the secondary being connected to the line-wire. Now a current of varying strength in the primary induces an alternating current in the secondary. We have, then, an alternating current flowing over the line-wire. This alternating current acts on the magnetic field of the receiver in the way described before, causing the disk in the receiver to vibrate and give out the sound.

For long-distance work a carbon-dust transmitter (Fig. 71) is used. In this there are many granules of carbon, so that instead of two carbon-points in contact there are many. This makes the transmitter more sensitive.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 71--CARBON-DUST TRANSMITTER]

The strength of current required for the telephone is very small. To transmit a telephone message requires less than a hundred-millionth part of the current required for a telegraphic message. The work done in lifting the telephone receiver a distance of one foot, if changed into an alternating current, would be sufficient to keep up a sound in the receiver for a hundred thousand years. Because of its extreme sensitiveness the telephone requires a complete wire circuit. The earth cannot be used for the return circuit, as in the case of the telegraph.

Disturbances in the earth, vibration, leakage currents from trolley lines, and so forth, would interfere seriously with the action of the telephone.

When the telephone was invented it was commonly remarked that it could not take the place of the telegraph in commerce, for the latter gave the merchant some evidence of a business transaction, while the telephone left no sign. There was a time when men feared to trust each other, but now large business deals are made by telephone; products of the farm, the factory, and the mine are bought and sold in immense quant.i.ties without a written contract or even the written evidence of a telegram.

Thus the telephone has developed a spirit of business honor.

The Phonograph

The phonograph grew out of the telephone. It is said to be the only one of Edison's inventions that came by accident, yet only a man of genius would have seen the meaning of such an accident. He was singing into the mouthpiece of a telephone when the vibrations of the disk caused a fine steel point to pierce one of his fingers held just behind the disk. This set him to thinking. If the sound of his voice could cause the disk to vibrate with force enough to pierce the skin, would it not make impressions on tin-foil, and so make a record of the voice that could be reproduced by pa.s.sing the point rapidly over the same impressions? He gave his a.s.sistants the necessary instructions, and soon the first phonograph was made.

This disk in the phonograph is set in vibration by sound vibrations in the air in the same way as the disk in the telephone transmitter.

Attached to the disk is a needle-point which, of course, vibrates with the disk. If a cylinder with a soft surface is turned rapidly under the steel point as it vibrates, impressions are made in the cylinder corresponding to the movements of the disk. The cylinder must move forward as it turns, so that its path will be a spiral. If, now, the stylus is placed at the starting-point and the cylinder turned rapidly the stylus will move rapidly up and down as it goes over the indentations in the cylinder, and so cause the metal disk to vibrate and give out a sound like that received at first. In the earliest phonographs the cylinder was covered with tin-foil. Later the so-called "wax records" came into use. These cylinders are not made of wax, but of very hard soap. Fig. 72 shows an instrument in which the sound of the voice caused a pencil-point to trace a wavy line on a cylinder. This instrument may be called a forerunner of the phonograph. Fig. 73 shows Edison's first phonograph with a modern instrument placed beside it for comparison.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 72--THE PHONAUTOGRAPH, A FORERUNNER OF THE PHONOGRAPH]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 73 EDISON'S FIRST PHONOGRAPH AND A MODERN INSTRUMENT Photo by Claudy.]

Gas-Engines

Cannons are the oldest gas-engines. Indeed, the principle of the cannon is the same as that of the modern gas-engine, the piston in the engine taking the place of the cannon-ball. The power in each case is obtained by explosion--in the cannon the explosion of powder, in the engine the explosion of a mixture of air and gas. Powder-engines with pistons were proposed in the seventeenth century, and some were actually built, but it proved too difficult to control them, and the idea of the gas-engine was abandoned for more than a hundred years.

The discovery of coal-gas near the close of the eighteenth century gave a new impetus to the gas-engine. John Barber, an Englishman, built the first actual gas-engine. He used gas distilled from wood, coal, or oil.

The gas, mixed with the proper proportion of air, was introduced into a tank which he called the exploder. The mixture was fired and issued out in a continuous stream of flame against the vanes of a paddle-wheel, driving them round with great force.

In 1804 Lebon, a French engineer, was a.s.sa.s.sinated, and the progress of the gas-engine set back a number of years, for this engineer had proposed to compress the mixture of gas and air before firing, and to fire the mixture by an electric spark. This is the method used in gas-engines to-day.

The first practical working gas-engine was invented by Lenoir, a Frenchman, in 1860. From this time to the end of the century the gas-engine developed rapidly, receiving a new impulse from the increasing demand for the motor-car.

The engine of the German inventors, Otto and Langen, brought out in 1876, marked the beginning of a new era. The greater number of engines used in automobiles to-day are of the kind known as the Otto cycle, or four-cycle, engine. This engine is called four-cycle because the piston makes four strokes for every explosion. There is one stroke to admit the mixture of gas and air to the cylinder, another to compress the gas and air, at the beginning of the third stroke the explosion takes place, and in the fourth stroke the burned-out gases are driven out of the cylinder. The working of the four-cycle gas-engine is made clear in Figs. 74, 75, 76, and 77.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 74--FIRST STROKE. GAS AND AIR ADMITTED TO THE CYLINDER]