Synopsis of Jewish History Part 11

No. 4.--Seder Nezekeen contains 10 sections.

No. 5.--Seder Kodosheem contains 11 sections.

No. 6.--Seder Taharous contains 12 sections.

-- Total 63 sections.

CHAPTER XIII.

Of the Gemara, or Completion, which is usually styled Talmud.

In the foregoing chapter we described the manner in which the Mishna was compiled, together with its contents, from its first delivery by Moses till the time of its being committed to writing by Rabbi Judah the Prince. We shall now proceed in regular order to explain what the Talmud is, and how it was composed by the several learned men among the Jews both in Jerusalem and in Babylon.

The compilation of the Talmud ranks among the most ancient Hebrew writings. It consists of two distinct heads--the Mishna and the Gemara, and both together form the Talmud.

The Mishna, as already explained, chiefly contains the oral or traditional laws transmitted down to posterity from the time of Moses the Lawgiver, to that of Rabbi Judah the Prince or Na.s.si.

The Gemara consists of expositions and comments on the Mishna, as also various other subjects connected with Jewish literature, and more especially Jewish theology. It contains also treatises on moral philosophy, ethics, mathematics, astronomy and chronology, and many other branches of the different sciences known in those days. The Gemara or expositions on the Mishna was commenced in the days of the Rabbins, Gamaliel and Simeon, the two sons of Rabbi Judah the Holy, about the year 3980 of the creation, and was completed and compiled into one body by Rav As.h.i.+, President, and Raviny, Vice President, who are considered the actual compilers of the Babylonian Talmud. This took place about the year 4260.

The authors of the Talmud in general are styled Amooroim, dictators, as they dictated the several explications of the Mishna, as discussed in the different schools, and which are all found in the Talmud. The comments and expositions are known by the name of Gemara, which signifies completion, because therein is fully explained all the traditional doctrines of the Jewish law and its religion. The Mishna is the text, the Gemara the comment, or glossary, and both together form the Talmud.

There are two Talmudim. The first is styled Talmud Yerushalmi, or Jerusalem Talmud. This was compiled by Rabbi Jochanan in five sedorim or divisions. This Talmud does not contain the whole of the Mishna. It was completed about the year 4060. The second Talmud is called Talmud Bably, or Babylonian Talmud, which was completed about two hundred years after the other Talmud. The Talmud Yerushalmi is the least esteemed of the two, and consequently less studied and quoted by the learned among Israel. It is the Babylonian Talmud which is usually studied and consulted in all points of jurisprudence, as connected with all religious affairs, both in, and out, of the synagogue. It is therefore to be understood, that whenever the Talmud is simply notified, it means the Babylonian Talmud; as the other Talmud is never quoted, unless particularly and expressly mentioned.

The Talmud Bably is arranged in the following order. The Mishna forms the text, and the Gemara is annexed as the comment or glossary. The same order is observed as with the Mishna, although it must be observed that the Gemara appears only on thirty-six sections, whereas the whole of the Mishna contains sixty-three sections, as explained in the foregoing chapter. The order of the Talmud is as follows:

No. 1.--Seder Zeroeem contains 1 section.

No. 2.--Seder Moed contains 11 sections.

No. 3.--Seder Nosheem contains 7 sections.

No. 4.--Seder Nezekeen contains 8 sections.

No. 5.--Seder Kodosheem contains 8 sections.

No. 6.--Seder Taharous contains 1 section.

-- Total 36 sections.

CHAPTER XI.

APPENDIX.

Having given a brief description of the Mishna and the Talmud, and their contents, we now direct the attention of the reader to the following observations, as a summary to the preceding two chapters.

The Pentateuch, or Five Books of Moses, is generally understood by the term "written law," and the Talmud as the oral or traditional law. The oral law was handed down from Moses to Joshua, from the elders to the prophets, and from them to the Great Synod, which consisted of one hundred and twenty of the most learned men of the age, and in like manner from time to time, until the days of Rabbi Judah, already mentioned. This great man, seriously contemplating the state of his nation as regarded their religious affairs, and perceiving that those who were learned in the law were gradually diminis.h.i.+ng in number, feared that the knowledge of the oral law might ultimately be forgotten, and with it the essential portion of the law of Moses. In the true spirit of devotion and piety, this Rabbi collected all the doctrines and precepts which had been taught orally, down to that period, and with the a.s.sistance of his pious colleagues, committed them to writing, and arranged them in the order of the Mishna, as already described. After the Mishna had been written, and presented to the nation at large, it was received by them with a general and unanimous consent. It was universally approved, and was held by them as an authentic doc.u.ment, delivered to Moses by the Almighty, while on the mount, as an explanation of the written law. The prevailing opinion among the people then was, that the Mishna had been handed down by tradition, and they were confirmed in such opinion by the conviction that the same had been taught to them in their youth in the various schools and academies which were established for such purposes. It was then considered expedient by the learned in those days, that some further explanation should be given, in order to render the Mishna more intelligible to the general cla.s.s of readers.

With this view, some of the most eminent among the Jewish doctors, taught in the schools the oral law together with the signification thereof, and in this way they ill.u.s.trated all the most abstruse and difficult pa.s.sages by useful and instructive commentaries. These ill.u.s.trations and glossaries increased from time to time, which formed the Talmud, such as it is at present in the possession of the Israelites. It abounds with aphorisms and ethics, which were introduced by the Rabbins and Doctors who composed the Talmud, in the course of their discussions. It was in this manner, that they supported the opinions advanced by them on the various subjects upon which they treated. These subjects were frequently ill.u.s.trated by moral tales and allegories, such being the tutelar system prevalent among most of the oriental nations in those days.

In the said Talmud the Rabbins taught also the various arts and sciences, such as known in those times, although it may be conceded that they may not have reached to such perfection as in the present enlightened age; nevertheless the principle was known by the Israelites of old, and practically applied by them as far as necessity demanded. It is well known that astronomy, geometry, architecture, physics, natural philosophy, as well as many of the other sciences, were in high cultivation both before and after the Babylonian captivity.

The building of the tabernacle in the wilderness--the beautiful temple of Solomon,--the superb edifice erected by Herod the Great, may certainly be advanced as specimens of the science of architecture, in which must naturally be included that of geometry. It cannot be denied that the Jews were also famous in hydraulics, aqueducts, etc., military tactics and war implements, engineering, agriculture, etc.

That astronomy was successfully cultivated by the Israelites of old, is proved by the perpetual chronological calendar which was formed and brought to perfection in the days of the Talmudical doctors. This calendar is composed both of the lunar and solar revolutions. Though it may not be strictly the province of this chapter to treat upon this subject, the reader will excuse the digression, in order to introduce a short extract of this calculation to show the basis upon which the same is founded, and prove that a knowledge of astronomy existed in those days, by the teachers of the Talmud. According to the Mosaic Law, the Israelites are directed to calculate the year and compute their holy days according to the lunar year. Twelve lunar, _synodical revolutions_, _i.e._ 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes and 3 seconds, compose one simple year. Thus we make sometimes 353, 354, 355 days, allowing for fractions. Yet the _Epactem_ of 10 days, 21 hours, 11 minutes and 20 seconds, in which the solar year exceeds the lunar, might be the cause, that the holy days would be removed from their respective seasons,--which would be the case, when calculating by the lunar only. So that in a period of seventeen years the feast of Pa.s.sover would be in the autumn instead of the spring, and the feast of tabernacle in spring instead of the autumn. On this account it was that the Jewish chronologists took care to remedy this defect, by forming alternately, sometimes to compose the year of thirteen lunar months, as 383, 384, 385 days, for which reason they adopted a period of 19 years, in which they formed seven complete years,--as the 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, 19, complete of thirteen lunar months, and the interval twelve years, _simple_, of twelve lunar months only; and in this periodical calculation of 19 years, according to the above rotation of twelve _simple_ and seven _complete_ years, the _lunar_ and _solar_ years then agree, without any variation whatever.[A] Hence it is that the Jewish calculation is very exactly and astronomically contrived, for it has never failed since its first introduction, now nearly fifteen centuries. This is a sufficient proof that the science of astronomy was known to the ancient Israelites.

We have already stated, that the Talmud contains many allegories, aphorisms, ethics, etc., which, it must be observed, are not to be interpreted in their literal sense, but as being intended to convey some moral and instructive lesson,--such being the system peculiar to oriental nations. This system not having been clearly understood by many of the Jews and Gentiles in both ancient and modern times, has led to the belief that the whole of the Talmud, as it now exists, is of divine origin. Now in justice to the authors of the Talmud, it must be stated, that they never intended to convey any such idea; their object was simply to render their discussions and dissertations intelligible to their coreligionists of those days, and that it should be carefully handed down to posterity. With this view it was, that the compilers of the Talmud left the work in its original and genuine state, with all the arguments and disputations as given by the authors in the various ages, so that they might not be charged with having interpolated it with ideas of their own, foreign to the views and intentions of the original authors of the work. This is sufficient to show that the _whole_ of the Talmud never was considered by the learned, as having a divine origin; but _those_ portions of the Mishna, ill.u.s.trative of the written law, as already explained, were received as divine, having been successively transmitted by oral tradition, from Moses to Rabbi Judah, the Prince, and by him placed before the world and handed down unalloyed to succeeding generations.

In coming ages, the learned among Israel, desirous that the study of the Talmud should not be entirely lost, have added comments and glossaries, in order to render the work as easy as possible to the comprehension of the student. The Talmud contains, not, as has been said, the narrow-minded sentiments of bigots, but the devout and conscientious discussions of men deeply impressed with the love of divine providence, and anxious to inculcate that love in others by precept and observation.

It was wisely remarked by the celebrated Luzzato, "that the ancient Rabbies were the incorrupt reporters of the ceremonials and rites of the Jews, and _no innovators!_ that they did not attempt to grasp a subject they could not comprehend, nor seek to hide by sophistical arguments, eloquently clothed, a truth that was apparent." _No!_ for, says the Venetian sage, they spoke of things to the study of which their whole lives had been devoted, and their piety gave weight to their opinions.

We are aware, however, that we are open to severe criticisms; but we trust that our remarks may neither shock the ear of the more enlightened portion of the Jewish nation, nor incur the displeasure of those, who still believe it to be a crime to urge a word respecting this time honored production. Much has been said on this subject.

Whilst some have labored incessantly to enforce the divinity of the Talmud--others again, either from prejudice or other unholy motives, have set at nought the entire composition, and condemned it as useless in the present age. How far the latter may be justified in the promulgation of such sentiments, may be easily ascertained by a glance at Judaism at the present, in view of the strife and contention between the Orthodox and the Reform, with but little benefit to Judaism in general. The reader will look "on this picture and on that"

and decide for himself.

We might quote many authorities of high standing among the Jewish literati, such as existed formerly in the schools of Jamnia, Tiberias, Surah, Pombeditha, etc.; and in subsequent ages, those unrivalled Luminaries that appeared in Spain and France, Germany and Poland, who have recommended the study of the Talmud as a guide to the perfect understanding of the holy writings. On the present occasion we prefer citing that which has been said of its merits by other divines, differing from the Jew in faith.

A celebrated Christian divine of the Catholic church who flourished in the fourth century, Aurelio Augustino, in a work called "The City of G.o.d," makes the following remarks:

"For, indeed, that nation, that people, that state, that republic, the Israelites, to whom was given the eloquence of G.o.d, in no way confounded the pseudo-prophets with their true prophets. But by a unanimous consent, and differing in nothing among themselves, they recognized the latter as the depositaries of the sacred writings, and considered them the authors. These true prophets were philosophers, that is, lovers of wisdom: being themselves wise men, they were theologians, prophets, and teachers of probity and piety. Whoever therefore lives and grows wise according to their doctrines, lives and grows wise not according to the doctrines of men, but according to the _doctrines of G.o.d_, who spoke through them."

"He further states, that as the love of virtue, with which these philosophers were deeply imbued, is the foundation of true belief, and the basis of all religion, so their works, coming from so pure, so enlightened, and so pious a source, are ent.i.tled to be received, not only by Jews, but by men of all creeds, as guides to the true knowledge of G.o.d and to that state of spiritual bliss, which it should be our sole aim in this life to attain," for which reason, in his first book, "_De Arcanis Catholicae Veritatis_," he strongly urged the propriety of having the Talmud translated into Latin, that it might be studied in the schools of Italy.

Peter Galatino, a learned Franciscan monk, who flourished in the early part of the sixteenth century, was known to be a great persecutor of the Jews. Yet in speaking of the sacred writings and Jewish literature in general, he expressed himself nearly in the following terms: That he regarded the Talmud as a divine work, and that he considered every part of it as perfect, and adorned with excellent moral instruction, adapted both for the guidance of our active and contemplative life, and ent.i.tled on account of its inspired authors, to be regarded as a work of extreme piety and goodness.

The above quotations are worthy of consideration. Let those Jews then, who would attempt to cast a slur upon the Talmud, look for one moment at these remarks, and pause while reflecting, that they were made by Catholics, ere they proceed in their attacks upon a work which could command such expressions from those whose religion was so widely different, but whose reason could not refuse to yield to the cogent proofs the divine book in itself contained.

FOOTNOTES:

[A] See the end of the book for an explanation of the Jewish months and years.

OF THE JEWISH MONTHS AND YEARS.

Time is the duration of things; it is divided into years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes, and seconds. A year is the s.p.a.ce of twelve months, which is the time the sun takes in pa.s.sing through the twelve signs of the Zodiac. The Zodiac is a circle showing the earth's yearly path through the heavens. On this circle are marked the twelve signs, which are numbers of stars, reduced by the fancy of men into the form of animals, and from these forms they take their name. A month is the time the moon occupies in going round the earth. There are two kinds of months, Lunar and Solar. Lunar months are calculated by the moon; solar months are reckoned by the sun. The Hebrews make use of lunar months which consist alternately of twenty-nine and thirty days. The sacred volume directs them to make their computations by lunar months. The plan adopted by them at this day is that which was so admirably arranged by the celebrated and learned Rabbi Hillel, the Prince. The difference between the solar and the lunar months would occasion, in a period of seventeen years, the pa.s.sover to occur in the autumn month called Tishree, instead of Neson, the spring month; and thus the feast of tabernacles would be in Neson instead of Tishree. To avoid such imperfections in their calculations, the Rabbins have arranged that every third year shall consist of thirteen lunar months instead of twelve. This additional month is called an intercalary month, and the year in which it occurs is called leap year. By this arrangement it will be found that, in the course of nineteen years, there are seven leap years, as follow:

The third, sixth, eighth, eleventh, fourteenth, seventeenth, and nineteenth. The moon was more regarded by the Jews than the sun, because by the new moon all their festivals and fasts were regulated.

The new moon was always the beginning of the month. Persons were appointed to watch its first appearance and represent the same to the Sanhedrin, who immediately made it known to the whole of the nation.

The new moon was celebrated by the sound of trumpets, and an extra sacrifice was offered in the holy temple.

The ancient Jews had originally no particular names for their months.

It is found occasionally in the Bible that names were given to some of the months. These names were made use of as descriptive of the season in which such month occurred; as we find by Moses the legislator, who called the name of the first month Abib, it being the spring time of the year. The present names of the Hebrew months are Chaldaic, and are said to have first been made use of by the nation during the captivity of Babylon. History informs us that these names were used both by the Chaldeans and the Persians. The Jews always reckon their day from evening to evening, because, in the account of the creation of the world the evening is mentioned before the morning; and thus it is that the Sabbaths, festivals and fasts commence from the previous evening. They have no particular names in Hebrew for the days of the week; they are called first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and the seventh is called _Sabbath_.

The term week owes its derivation to the Hebrew word _Shovuang_, which signifies seventh, on which day G.o.d rested from his labors. In former times the Jews had three sorts of weeks:

First--Weeks of Days, which were reckoned from Sabbath to Sabbath.

Second--Weeks of Years, which were reckoned from one sabbatical year to another. The sabbatical year happened every seventh year. This year was called _Shemittah_, or year of release. Third--Weeks of seven times seven years, or forty-nine years, and the fiftieth year was called the year of _Youvile_, or Jubilee. The Jubilee was celebrated on the day of atonement, and was proclaimed by the sounding of rams'

horns and seven trumpets. The Jubilee allowed the same privileges as the sabbatical year. On both these occasions the ground was not cultivated, but suffered to lie at rest, in order to recruit its fruitful powers. All Hebrew slaves were set at liberty, and all lands or houses, that may have been sold or pledged, returned to the original owners.