Moral Theology Part 43

When these exercises are chiefly non-religious or entirely civil, even though conducted in non-Catholic churches or by non-Catholic ministers, the Church grants permission to partic.i.p.ate in them to some extent, if there is sufficient reason.

975. Among the mixed occasions just mentioned are not included such as have an anti-Catholic or anti-religious spirit, such as funerals from which all manifestations of religion are excluded on account of hatred of religion, entertainments held by forbidden societies in which the members are present in regalia, picnics under the auspices of the Orangemen, etc.

976. Coperation in Religious Activities.--A third danger of making external profession of a false religion is coperation in activities whose tendency or principles are erroneous (see 944). Coperation in a false religion is of two kinds, immediate and mediate. (a) Coperation is immediate, when one takes a part in an act of a false religion itself (e.g., by wors.h.i.+pping an idol). This kind of coperation was discussed above, as partic.i.p.ation or communication (see 956-975). (b) Coperation is mediate, when one takes part, not in an act of a false religion, but in some other act which is a preparation for a help to the act of a false religion. This is the kind of coperation we are now considering.

977. Mediate coperation is of various kinds. (a) It is proximate or remote, according as the preparation or help afforded to false religion is near to or far from the religious act. Thus, to make ready the lights, incense, flowers, etc. in front of an idol is proximate coperation; to give money to an idolatrous priest or bonze is remote coperation. (b) Mediate coperation is material or formal, according as the intention of the coperator is to share in or help error itself, or merely to help those who are in error, while disapproving of their error. Thus, if one prepares a pagan temple for wors.h.i.+p or contributes money towards its maintenance because one's sympathies are with its idolatry, one's coperation is formal; if one does these things only in order to make a living or to show friends.h.i.+p to an individual pagan, one's coperation is material. It is clear that formal coperation is a grave sin against faith, and hence we shall speak now only of material coperation.

978. The principles governing the lawfulness of material coperation will be treated at length below in their proper place among the sins opposed to charity. But since, on account of the mixed conditions of society today, there are innumerable cases of material coperation in religion, it will be useful to state in advance in this place the principles bearing on material coperation and their application to cases on religion and wors.h.i.+p. The principles are the same as those given for an act that has two effects, one good and the other bad.

Hence, material coperation is not lawful, except when the following conditions are present:

(a) The action of him who coperates must be good in itself or at least indifferent, for of course, if it is evil, it is not lawful. Thus, if a person were to give to one pagan temple objects he had stolen from another temple, his action would be intrinsically sinful on account of the theft. Similarly, if a person were to contribute to a collection list as "sympathizer" with a school for the propagation of atheism or as "beneficiary" from the sacrifices to be offered an idol, his act would be intrinsically sinful as being a promotion of error or superst.i.tion, even though he were not really a sympathizer with atheism or a believer in idols.

(b) The intention of him who coperates must be good; for, if he wills to help a false religion, he is guilty of formal coperation; if he wills some other wrong end, he is guilty of some other species of sin.

Thus, if one who does not believe in idolatry contributes to it on account of sympathy with anti-Christian movements, he is guilty of enmity to the truth.

(c) There must be a reason for the coperation proportionate to the gravity of the sin which will be committed by others, to the proximity and necessity of the coperation, and to the obligation which one has of preventing the sin of others. Examples: To contribute to a sect which plots the downfall of legitimate authority is never lawful, for there is no reason of temporal or private good that can be a compensation for the destruction of the public good. To contribute to the building of a Mohammedan mosque does not require so serious a reason as to contribute to the building of a pagan temple, for mosques are not used for idolatry. A graver reason is needed to justify ringing the bell or ushering the people to their seats for a service of false wors.h.i.+p than to justify sweeping and dusting the temple the day before the service, for in the former case the coperation is closer. A greater reason is required to build a house of false wors.h.i.+p, when there is no one else to build it, than when there are many others who will gladly build it if one refuses, for in the former case one's coperation is so necessary that without it the false wors.h.i.+p cannot take place, but not so in the latter case. A much more serious reason would be required to justify parents conducting their children to a place of false wors.h.i.+p than would be required to justify a public chauffeur in taking pa.s.sengers thither; for the parents have a special duty to guard the religion of their children.

979. The above principles on mediate coperation are clear enough, but it is frequently very difficult to apply them on account of the uncertainty as to whether or not a particular act of coperation is indifferent in itself, or whether a particular reason for coperation is sufficient. But the following rules will help:

(a) An act is indifferent or good, when it does not tend to evil from its very nature or the circ.u.mstances, but has purposes that are not bad. It is bad when either intrinsically (i.e., from its nature) or extrinsically (i.e., from circ.u.mstances) it tends necessarily to evil.

Examples: A derisory image of Christ and the manual of an obscene cult are intrinsically evil, inasmuch as they necessarily convey error or immorality. To draw up plans for a temple of idolaters in a Christian country would have the appearance of favoring the propagation of idolatry; to work on the construction of a temple in a pagan country where the lending of one's labor is regarded as a sign of acceptance of paganism, to help build a meeting house for a sect that plots the overthrow of government or religion--all these acts are indifferent in themselves (for one may also draw plans and put up walls for good or indifferent purposes), but from the circ.u.mstances they are evil in the cases given.

(b) Reasons for coperation may be ranked as great, greater and greatest according to the kinds of goods that are at stake, and their sufficiency or insufficiency may be determined by measuring them with the gravity of the coperation that is given. Great reasons are: fear of serious suffering, or of the wrath of husband or other superior, or of loss of an opportunity to make a considerable profit. Greater reasons are: fear of loss of position, or of notable detriment to reputation or fortune, or of severe imprisonment. Among the greatest reasons for coperation in the wors.h.i.+p of a false religion are the following: danger of loss of life or limb, of perpetual imprisonment, of great dishonor, of loss of all one's earthly possessions, of disturbance of the public peace.

980. Cases of coperation in false religion that occur most frequently are: (a) contributions made to schools, churches, inst.i.tutions; (b) labor given to buildings and objects of wors.h.i.+p or instruction; (c) labor given to acts of wors.h.i.+p or instruction.

981. Contributions to false wors.h.i.+p are unlawful, even apart from scandal, danger of perversion, and the bad intention of the coperator in the following cases:

(a) When on account of circ.u.mstances the contributions are signs of sympathy with religious errors. Examples: t.i.tus gives many stipends for Ma.s.ses to a schismatical priest. Balbus, when asked, contributes liberally to a fund for the building of a hall under the auspices of atheists. Caius, without being asked, gives a small donation towards the erection of a pagan temple. Claudius sends in a subscription to the treasury of a political organization whose purpose is anti-religious, and promises to support their ticket.

(b) Contributions, even though they manifest no sympathy with religious error, are unlawful, when there is no reason for the coperation, or only an insufficient reason. Examples: Caius contributes to a pagan temple for no other reason than that he has not the heart to refuse anyone. t.i.tus advertises constantly in an antireligious paper in order to help his business (cfr. 1530).

982. If there is no bad intention on the part of the contributor, and if the danger of scandal or perversion is excluded, contributions are permitted under the following conditions, of which both must be present:

(a) The contribution must not be a mark of sympathy with religious error. This condition will be fulfilled more readily in countries of mixed religion, where Catholics and non-Catholics have been long a.s.sociated together, and where non-Catholic denominations are engaged in many things other than the preaching of their doctrines, such as works of benevolence. Example: Balbus contributes at times to the building or maintenance of Protestant orphan asylums, hospitals, and schools, in a locality where these inst.i.tutions are open to all and a contribution is not regarded as a sign of agreement with sectarian purposes.

(b) There must be a sufficient reason for making the contribution, such as the common good or great private necessity. Examples: Claudius contributes to the building of a non-Catholic church, in order that Catholics may thus obtain exclusive use of a church till then used by Catholics and non-Catholics alike. t.i.tus buys tickets for bazaars, lawn ftes, oyster suppers, dances, picnics and other entertainments held for the benefit of non-Catholic churches, since, if he does not do this, he will lose trade and his business will be injured.

983. The building of houses of false wors.h.i.+p, the production and sale of articles used in false wors.h.i.+p, are unlawful also in two cases:

(a) when, on account of circ.u.mstances, they are a mark of approval of the false wors.h.i.+p. Examples: Christians of j.a.pan were forbidden by the Church to coperate in the erection of altars or temples to idols, even if threatened with death or exile, and the reason of the prohibition seems to have been in each instance that such work was looked on and demanded as a profession of faith in paganism. Similarly, the construction of non-Catholic edifices in a Catholic country, of a pagan temple in a Christian country, or of an atheistic hall, would be signs of approbation of error. It is difficult to see how one who sells idols to those who request them for purposes of idolatry does not show favor to false wors.h.i.+p, although he might be excused if, under threat of great harm, he delivered them with a protest that he was acting under compulsion;

(b) when there is no reason, or no sufficient reason, for coperation with false wors.h.i.+p. Example: Balbus helps to build non-Catholic places of wors.h.i.+p for no other reason than that he is asked to do so, or that he receives good pay.

984. Building non-Catholic temples or furnis.h.i.+ng the appurtenances of wors.h.i.+p, scandal and other evil being avoided, are lawful under two conditions as above:

(a) the work must not be regarded as a sign of approval of false wors.h.i.+p. Examples: The Church has permitted Christians to a.s.sist in the construction of Mohammedan mosques, when this was done unwillingly by them and under compulsion. The manufacture of statues of Buddha or of other idols is not a sign that one approves of idolatry, because these objects have legitimate uses, such as adornment of palaces or art galleries. Similarly, the production and distribution of emblems of a non-Catholic sect or secret society is regarded as being in itself an indifferent sect, on account of the various uses to which such objects may be put;

(b) there must be a reason sufficiently grave for doing this kind of work. Hence, a greater reason is needed to build a pagan temple than a Mohammedan mosque, and graver reason to build a mosque than an heretical place of wors.h.i.+p; likewise, greater reason is required to coperate as architect than as hirer and supervisor of labor, greater reason to coperate as supervisor of labor than as stonecutter, bricklayer, etc.; greater reason is required to justify selling than making idols; greater reason to justify selling altar cloths and breads for the Lord's Supper than for selling pews and stained gla.s.s windows.

Examples: Since lights, benches, bells, tables, cloths, etc., are not necessarily intended for direct use in acts of wors.h.i.+p, a sufficient reason for selling them to non-Catholic churches is the profit that will be made. But, since vestments and chalices pertain directly to wors.h.i.+p, a more serious reason is required for selling them than business gains.

985. Making the preparations for non-Catholic services is unlawful in the two cases given above, that is, when there is approval or insufficient reason. (a) If the work manifests an approval of the services, it is unlawful. Such positions as s.e.xton, sacristan, usher, beadle, church-warden, and trustee, imply recognition of the wors.h.i.+p or members.h.i.+p in the congregation, although the same does not seem to be true of members.h.i.+p in the civil corporation of a church, nor of external offices such as janitor, caretaker, and attorney. Examples: Balba, an Anglican who is sick, wishes her minister to bring her communion. She asks her nurse, t.i.tia, who is a Catholic, to telephone the minister to bring communion, and also directs t.i.tia to prepare an altar and a.s.sist the minister on his arrival by lighting the candles, making responses, etc. t.i.tia may not consent, for such immediate coperation would mean approval of and partic.i.p.ation in Anglican rites.

Claudius, a Catholic, is hired by the minister of a Protestant church to take care of the yard and garden about the church and parsonage.

Sometimes the minister asks Claudius to play the chimes in his church tower which call the people to the services. The gardening work is indifferent, but the playing of the chimes seems at least an unlawful coperation, since it is an invitation to non-Catholic wors.h.i.+p.

(b) If there is no sufficient reason for the work, it is unlawful.

Examples: Gaia, a Catholic, acts as scrubwoman and cleaner in a schismatical church for no other reason than friends.h.i.+p for members of the altar society. On certain feast days her husband, Caius, a Catholic, takes pilgrims to the schismatical church in a bus, only because he makes considerable profit.

986. Making preparations for non-Catholic services, scandal and other danger being avoided, is lawful when the two conditions given above are present. (a) Hence, the preparations must contain no indication of approval of the services. Examples: If t.i.tia, the nurse mentioned in the previous paragraph, called in an Anglican nurse to receive and fulfill the orders of Balba, she would show that she did not herself approve of the rites, and her act would be indifferent in itself. If she could not avoid telephoning the minister without serious consequences, it would not be unlawful for her to tell him that Balba wished him to call. She might even in great necessity prepare the table herself, but could take no part in the rite. The acts of telling the minister that a visit from him was desired and of preparing the table would not be, in the circ.u.mstances, approving of the rite that followed. If Claudius mentioned in the foregoing paragraph wound up the clock in the church tower, or rang the bell at certain times to indicate the hour of the day, his acts would be indifferent, since they have no necessary reference to wors.h.i.+p.

(b) There must be a reason sufficiently grave for engaging in the work that prepares for the services. Examples: If Caia mentioned in the preceding paragraph were in great poverty and could find no other employment, this would be a sufficient reason for her coperation.

Likewise, if her husband drove a bus that carried pa.s.sengers to whatever destination they desired, and he could not refuse to let them off at the church without being dismissed or causing other like inconveniences, he would have sufficient reason for his coperation.

987. The Commandment of External Profession of Faith.--The third commandment of faith (mentioned in 918) has been considered so far in its negative aspect--that is, as a prohibition against the denial of truth or the profession of error. It remains to consider it in its affirmative aspect--that is, as a precept of profession of faith or of denial of error.

988. The ways of making profession of faith are various: (a) It is made implicitly, if one performs acts that suppose faith; explicitly, if one declares in words one's internal belief. Thus, a Catholic professes his faith implicitly by observing the precepts of the Church; explicitly, by reciting before others an act of faith or the Creed.

(b) The declaration of one's faith in words is made in ordinary ways, if one affirms it to others, privately or publicly, or if one teaches it or defends it in debate; it is made solemnly, if it is recited according to a prescribed form as a ceremony. Thus, a Catholic who answers to a questioner that he is a Catholic, or who explains the truths of faith to an inquirer, or who replies to the objections of an unbeliever, makes an ordinary profession of faith; one who reads before the bishop or other designated authority a formula prescribed by the Church, makes solemn profession of faith. The solemn profession of faith is usually made before the altar, on which candles are lighted; and he who makes profession of faith kneels before the authority who receives it. Sometimes witnesses are present and the profession is signed.

(c) The solemn profession of faith is sometimes an abjuration (i.e., a declaration of one's adherence to the faith of the Church and a recantation of previous errors); sometimes it is a declaration or oath that one rejects errors or accepts truths. Thus, converts before reception into the Church abjure the errors they formerly held; officials in the Church before a.s.suming authority make a profession of faith in which they reprobate Modernism and express their belief in the Creed and the teachings of the Church.

989. The existence of a divine precept of profession of faith is proved from revelation and intrinsic reasons, as follows:

(a) "If thou confess with thy mouth the Lord Jesus, and believe in thy heart that G.o.d hath raised Him up from the dead, thou shalt be saved.

For with the heart we believe unto justice, but with the mouth confession is made unto salvation" (Rom., x. 9, 10). This precept obliges under grave sin, since it is required for salvation.

(b) The first reason for external profession of faith is the honor of G.o.d; for it is a mark of disrespect to G.o.d to be ashamed or afraid to acknowledge oneself as a believer in His Word or a witness to its truth, on account of what others may think or say or do.

(c) A second reason for the external profession of faith is one's own good. It is well known that faith is strengthened by external acts, and that it grows weak and decays among Catholics who have no priests or churches or means of practising their faith.

(d) A third reason for profession of faith is the good of others, for the confession of faith is an encouragement to those who are strong in faith, an example to those whose faith is weak, and a light to those who have not the faith.

990. The divine precept of profession of faith, since it is affirmative, does not call for fulfillment at every moment. It obliges only at those times when the honor of G.o.d, the Revealer of Truth, or the needs of our neighbor, who is called to the truth, demand that one declare externally one's internal belief. (a) The honor of G.o.d demands a confession of faith, when a refusal to give it signifies that one does not accept the truths revealed by G.o.d, that revelation contains error, etc. (b) The needs of our neighbor demand a confession of faith, when a refusal to give it will prevent another from embracing the faith, or will cause him to lose it or give up its practices, etc.

991. The honor of G.o.d or the good of the neighbor calls for an external profession of faith at the following times: (a) when a person is joining the Church or returning to it, for the Church is a visible society and members.h.i.+p in it should be visible; (b) when a Catholic is interrogated about his faith, for here the honor of G.o.d and the good of others require that he be not ashamed of Christ or His Words (Luke, ix.

26), and that he should cause his light to s.h.i.+ne before men (Matt., v.

16); (c) when a Catholic is in the company of others who are ridiculing or calumniating the faith, and a protest is looked for from him on account of his authority, knowledge, etc.

992. The profession of faith made by one who is joining the Church must be external, but the same publicity is not necessary for every case.

(a) Secret profession of faith is made when the reception of a convert is known only to himself and the priest who received him. This is permitted only in grave necessity, when the spiritual good of the convert requires it, and no injury is done to the honor of G.o.d or the Welfare of the neighbor. Example: t.i.tus is dying and wishes to be baptized, but for an important reason he is unwilling to have the fact of his conversion disclosed. Father Balbus, therefore, baptizes without witnesses.

(b) Private profession of faith is made when the reception of a convert is made before the priest and two witnesses, but the fact of the conversion is not made known to others on account of circ.u.mstances.

This is permitted only for a short time and for serious reasons (see 932, 993), as the task of concealing one's faith for a long time is most difficult and is dangerous to faith itself. Example: Caius is a pagan who wishes to become a Catholic, but is kept back on account of dangers from his fellow-pagans, who will persecute him as an apostate.

He, therefore, asks to be received as a secret Christian, with liberty to profess no religion externally. This may be permitted for a time, until Caius can move to some other place, but it cannot be permitted permanently.

(c) Public profession of faith is made when the reception of a convert is made before the priest and two witnesses, and the convert thereafter makes it known that he is a Catholic by attending Ma.s.s, receiving the Sacraments, etc. This kind of profession of faith is ordinarily required, but there is no law making it necessary for a convert to publish the news of his conversion.

993. A difficult case occurs when one who wishes to become a convert is unable to make public profession of Catholicity without suffering very great detriment, and is unable to make private profession without continuing in external practices of the non-Catholic religion. An example of this would be a non-Catholic girl who is threatened with dest.i.tution by her parents if she becomes a Catholic openly, and who knows that she will be forced to go to church with them if she becomes a Catholic privately. There are three courses in such a case: (a) public profession of Catholicism at once could be advised if the party showed signs of a special divine call and of a heroism equal to the difficulties the public profession would entail; (b) private profession of Catholicism could be tolerated for a time, if the party was of such age and circ.u.mstances as to appear able to cope successfully with the temptations and perplexities that beset this course; (c) delay of Baptism until things take a better turn would be the most prudent plan, if the deprivation of spiritual advantages would in the long run prove a lesser evil than the inconveniences of public or private profession of Catholicism.