The Grammar of English Grammars Part 86

--_Ibid._, p. 185.

OBS. 4.--The conjunction _if_ is sometimes used in the Bible to express, not a supposition of what follows it, but an emphatic negation: as, "I have sworn in my wrath, _if_ they shall enter into my rest."--_Heb._, iv, 3.

That is, _that they shall not enter_. The same peculiarity is found in the Greek text, and also in the Latin, and other versions. _Or_, in the obsolete phrase, "_or ever_," is not properly a conjunction, but a conjunctive adverb of time, meaning _before_. It is supposed to be a corruption of _ere_: as, "I was set up from everlasting, from the beginning, _or ever_ the earth was."--_Prov._, viii, 23. "And we, _or ever_ he come near, are ready to kill him."--_Acts_, xxiii, 15. This term derives no support from the original text.

OBS. 5.--There are some peculiar phrases, or combinations of words, which have the force of conjunctions, and which it is not very easy to a.n.a.lyze satisfactorily in parsing: as, "And _for all_ there were so many, yet was not the net broken."--_John_, xxi, 11. Here _for all_ is equivalent to _although_, or _notwithstanding_; either of which words would have been more elegant. _Nevertheless_ is composed of three words, and is usually reckoned a conjunctive adverb; but it might as well be called a disjunctive conjunction, for it is obviously equivalent to _yet, but_, or _notwithstanding_; as, "I am crucified with Christ: _nevertheless_ I live; _yet not_ I, _but_ Christ liveth in me."--_Gal._, ii, 20. Here, for _nevertheless_ and _but_, we have in the Greek the same particle [Greek: de]. "Each man's mind has some peculiarity, _as well as_ his face."--_Locke_. "Relative p.r.o.nouns, _as well as_ conjunctions, serve to connect sentences."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 124. Here the first _as_ corresponds to the second, but _well_ not being used in the literal sense of an adverb, some judicious grammarians take the whole phrase as a conjunction. It is, however, susceptible of division: as, "It is adorned with admirable pieces of sculpture, _as well_ modern _as_ ancient."--_Addison_.

OBS. 6.--So the phrases, _for as much as, in as much as, in so much that_, if taken collectively, have the nature of conjunctions; yet they contain within themselves correspondent terms and several different parts of speech. The words are sometimes printed separately, and sometimes partly together. Of late years, _forasmuch, inasmuch, insomuch_, have been usually compounded, and called adverbs. They might as well, perhaps, be called conjunctions, as they were by some of our old grammarians; for two conjunctions sometimes come together: as, "Answering their questions, _as if_[314] it were a matter that needed it."--_Locke_. "These should be at first gently treated, _as though_ we expected an imposthumation,"--_Sharp_.

"But there are many things which we must acknowledge to be true, _notwithstanding that_ we cannot comprehend them."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, p. 211. "There is no difference, _except that_ some are heavier than others."--"We may be playful, _and yet_ innocent; grave, _and yet_ corrupt."--_Murray's Key_, p. 166.

OBS. 7.--Conjunctions have no grammatical modifications, and are consequently incapable of any formal agreement or disagreement with other words; yet their import as connectives, copulative or disjunctive, must be carefully observed, lest we write or speak them improperly. Example of error: "Prepositions are _generally set before_ nouns _and_ p.r.o.nouns."--_Wilbur's Gram._, p. 20. Here _and_ should be _or_; because, although a preposition usually governs a noun _or_ a p.r.o.noun, it seldom governs both at once. And besides, the a.s.sertion above seems very naturally to mean, that nouns and p.r.o.nouns _are generally preceded_ by prepositions--as gross an error as dullness could invent! L. Murray also says of prepositions: "They are, _for the most_ part, put before nouns _and_ p.r.o.nouns."--_Gram._, p. 117. So Felton: "They generally stand before nouns _and_ p.r.o.nouns."--_a.n.a.lytic and Prac. Gram._, p. 61. The blunder however came originally from Lowth, and out of the following admirable enigma: "Prepositions, _standing by themselves in construction_, are put before nouns _and_ p.r.o.nouns; _and_ sometimes after verbs; but _in this sort of composition_ they are _chiefly prefixed_ to verbs: as, _to outgo, to overcome_."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 66.

OBS. 8.--The opposition suggested by the disjunctive particle _or_, is sometimes merely nominal, or verbal: as, "That object is a triangle, _or_ figure contained under three right lines."--_Harris_. "So if we say, that figure is a sphere, _or_ a globe, _or_ a ball."--_Id., Hermes_, p. 258. In these cases, the disjunction consists in nothing but an alternative of words; for the terms connected describe or name the same thing. For this sense of _or_, the Latins had a peculiar particle, _sive_, which they called _Subdisjunctiva_, a _Subdisjunctive_: as, "Alexander _sive_ Paris; Mars _sive_ Mavors."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 258. In English, the conjunction _or_ is very frequently equivocal: as, "They were both more ancient than Zoroaster _or_ Zerdusht."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 250; _Murray's Gram._, p. 297. Here, if the reader does not happen to know that _Zoroaster_ and _Zerdusht_ mean the same person, he will be very likely to mistake the sense. To avoid this ambiguity, we subst.i.tute, (in judicial proceedings,) the Latin adverb _alias, otherwise_; using it as a conjunction subdisjunctive, in lieu of _or_, or the Latin _sive_: as, "Alexander, _alias_ Ellick."--"Simson, _alias_ Smith, _alias_ Baker."--_Johnson's Dict._

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

PRAXIS IX.--ETYMOLOGICAL.

_In the Ninth Praxis, it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the cla.s.ses and modifications of the_ ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, p.r.o.nOUNS, VERBS, PARTICIPLES, ADVERBS, _and_ CONJUNCTIONS.

_The definitions to be given in the Ninth Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a p.r.o.noun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb, two for a conjunction,--and one for a preposition, or an interjection. Thus_:--

EXAMPLE Pa.r.s.eD.

"If thou hast done a good deed, boast not of it."--_Maxims_.

_If_ is a copulative conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. 2. A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes an addition, a cause, a consequence, or a supposition.

_Thou_ is a personal p.r.o.noun, of the second person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. 1. A p.r.o.noun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal p.r.o.noun is a p.r.o.noun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or p.r.o.noun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

_Hast done_ is an irregular active-transitive verb, from _do, did, doing, done_; found in the indicative mood, perfect tense, second person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_ or _to be acted upon_. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by a.s.suming _d_ or _ed_. 3. An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5.

The perfect tense is that which expresses what has taken place, within some period of time not yet fully past. 6. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.

_A_ is the indefinite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The indefinite article is _an_ or _a_, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one.

_Good_ is a common adjective, of the positive degree; compared irregularly, _good, better, best_. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or p.r.o.noun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form.

_Deed_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or cla.s.s, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or p.r.o.noun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle or preposition.

_Boast_ is a regular active-intransitive verb, from _boast, boasted, boasting, boasted_; found in the imperative mood, present tense, second person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_ or _to be acted upon_. 2. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by a.s.suming _d_ or _ed_. 3. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object. 4. The imperative mood is that form of the verb, which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. 5.

The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.

_Not_ is an adverb or manner, expressing negation. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the question, _How?_ or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, show _how_ a subject is regarded. _Of_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a p.r.o.noun.

_It_ is a personal p.r.o.noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A p.r.o.noun is a word used in stead of a noun.

2. A personal p.r.o.noun is a p.r.o.noun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or p.r.o.noun which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

LESSON I.--PARSING.

"In all gratifications, disgust ever lies nearest to the highest pleasures; and therefore let us not marvel, if this is peculiarly the case in eloquence. By glancing at either poets or orators, we may easily satisfy ourselves, that neither a poem nor an oration which aims continually at what is fine, showy, and sparkling, can please us long. Wherefore, though we may wish for the frequent praise of having expressed ourselves well and properly, we should not covet repeated applause for being bright and splendid."--CICERO, _de Oratore_.

"The foundation of eloquence, as well as of every other high attainment, is practical wisdom. For it happens in oratory, as in life, that nothing is more difficult, than to discern what is proper and becoming. Through lack of such discernment, gross faults are very often committed. For neither to all ranks, fortunes, and ages, nor to every time, place, and auditory, can the same style either of language or of sentiment be adapted. In every part of a discourse, as in every part of life, we must consider what is suitable and decent; and this must be determined with reference both to the matter in question, and to the personal character of those who speak and those who hear."--CICERO, _Orator ad Brutum_.

"So spake th' Omnipotent, and with his words All seem'd well pleas'd; all seem'd, but were not all."--_Milton_.

LESSON II.--PARSING.

"A square, though not more regular than a hexagon or an octagon, is more beautiful than either: for what reason, but that a square is more simple, and the attention is less divided?"--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 175.

"We see the material universe in motion; but matter is inert; and, so far as we know, nothing can move it but mind: therefore G.o.d is a spirit. We do not mean that his nature is the same as that of our soul; for it is infinitely more excellent. But we mean, that he possesses intelligence and active power in supreme perfection; and, as these qualities do not belong to matter, which is neither active nor intelligent, we must refer them to that which is not matter, but mind."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, p. 210.

"Men are generally permitted to publish books, and contradict others, and even themselves, as they please, with as little danger of being confuted, as of being understood."--_Boyle_.

"Common reports, if ridiculous rather than dangerous, are best refuted by neglect."--_Kames's Thinking_, p. 76. "No man is so foolish, but that he may give good counsel at a time; no man so wise, but he may err, if he take no counsel but his own."--_Ib._, p. 97.

"Young heads are giddy, and young hearts are warm, And make mistakes for manhood to reform."--_Cowper_.

LESSON III.--PARSING.

"The Nouns denote substances, and those either natural, artificial, or abstract. They moreover denote things either general, or special, or particular. The p.r.o.nouns, their subst.i.tutes, are either prepositive, or subjunctive."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 85.

"In a thought, generally speaking, there is at least one capital object considered as acting or as suffering. This object is expressed by a substantive noun: its action is expressed by an active verb; and the thing affected by the action is expressed by an other substantive noun: its suffering, or pa.s.sive state, is expressed by a pa.s.sive verb; and the thing that acts upon it, by a substantive noun. Beside these, which are the capital parts of a sentence, or period, there are generally underparts; each of the substantives, as well as the verb, may be qualified: time, place, purpose, motive, means, instrument, and a thousand other circ.u.mstances, may be necessary to complete the thought."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 34.

"Yet those whom pride and dullness join to blind, To narrow cares and narrow s.p.a.ce confined, Though with big t.i.tles each his fellow greets, Are but to wits, as scavengers to streets."--_Mallet_.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS RESPECTING CONJUNCTIONS.

"A Verb is so called from the Latin _verb.u.m_, or _word._"--_Bucke's Cla.s.sical Gram._, p. 56.

[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the conjunction _or_, connecting _verb.u.m_ and _word_, supposes the latter to be _Latin_. But, according to Observation 7th, on the Cla.s.ses of Conjunctions, "The import of connectives, copulative or disjunctive, must be carefully observed, lest we write or speak them improperly." In this instance, _or_ should be changed to _a_; thus, "A _Verb_ is so called from the Latin _verb.u.m, a word_" that is, "which means, _a word_."]

"References are often marked by letters and figures."--_Gould's Adam's Gram._, p. 283. (1.) "A Conjunction is a word which joins words and sentences together."--_Lennie's E. Gram._, p. 51; _Bullions's_, 70; _Brace's_, 57. (2.) "A conjunction is used to connect words and sentences together."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 37. (3.) "A conjunction is used to connect words and sentences."--_Maunders Gram._, p. 1. (4.) "Conjunctions are words used to join words and sentences."--_Wilc.o.x's Gram._, p. 3. (5.) "A Conjunction is a word used to connect words and sentences."-- _M'Culloch's Gram._, p. 36; _Hart's_, 92; _Day's_, 10. (6.) "A Conjunction joins words and sentences together."--_Mackintosh's Gram._, p. 115; _Hiley's_, 10 and 53. (7.) "The Conjunction joins words and sentences together."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 2d Edition, p. 28. (8.) "Conjunctions connect words and sentences to each other."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 35. (9.) "Conjunctions connect words and sentences."--_Wilc.o.x's Gram._, p. 80; _Wells's_, 1st Ed., 159 and 168. (10.) "The conjunction is a part of speech used to connect words and sentences."--_Weld's Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 49. (11.) "A conjunction is a word used to connect words and sentences together."-- _Fowler's E. Gram._, --329. (12.) "Connectives are words which unite words and sentences in construction."--_Webster's Philos. Gram._, p. 123; _Improved Gram._, 81. "English Grammar is miserably taught in our district schools; the teachers know but little or nothing about it."--_Taylor's District School_, p. 48. "Least, instead of preventing, you draw on Diseases."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 40. "The definite article _the_ is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 33; _Ingersoll's_, 33; _Lennie's_, 6; _Bullions's_, 8; _Fisk's_, 53, and others. "When nouns naturally neuter are converted into masculine and feminine."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 38.

"This form of the perfect tense represents an action completely past, and often at no great distance, but not specified."--_Ib._, p. 74. "The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect or to continue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, &c."--_Ib._, p. 123. "The Conjunction Disjunctive serves, not only to connect and continue the sentence, but also to express opposition of meaning in different degrees."--_Ib._, p. 123. "Whether we open the volumes of our divines, philosophers, historians, or artists, we shall find that they abound with all the terms necessary to communicate their observations and discoveries."--_Ib._, p. 138. "When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, or p.r.o.noun, and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun and p.r.o.noun."--_Ib._, p. 152: _R. G. Smith, Alger, Gomly, Merchant, Picket, et al._ "p.r.o.nouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the nouns for which they stand, in gender and number."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 154. "Verbs neuter do not act upon, or govern, nouns and p.r.o.nouns."--_Ib._, p. 179. "And the auxiliary both of the present and past imperfect times."--_Ib._, p. 72. "If this rule should not appear to apply to every example, which has been produced, nor to others which might be adduced."--_Ib._, p. 216. "An emphatical pause is made, after something has been said of peculiar moment, and on which we desire to fix the hearer's attention."--_Ib._, p. 248; _Hart's Gram._, 175. "An imperfect phrase contains no a.s.sertion, or does not amount to a proposition or sentence."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 267. "The word was in the mouth of every one, but for all that, the subject may still be a secret."--_Ib._, p.

213. "A word it was in the mouth of every one, but for all that, as to its precise and definite idea, this may still be a secret."--_Harris's Three Treatises_, p. 5. "It cannot be otherwise, in regard that the French prosody differs from that of every other country in Europe."--_Smollett's Voltaire_, ix, 306. "So gradually as to allow its being engrafted on a subtonic."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 255. "Where the Chelsea or Maiden bridges now are."--_Judge Parker_. "Adverbs are words joined to verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs."--_Smith's Productive Gram._, p. 92. "I could not have told you, who the hermit was, nor on what mountain he lived."--_Bucke's Cla.s.sical Gram._, p. 32. "_Am_, or _be_ (for they are the same) naturally, or in themselves signify _being_."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 113. "Words are distinct sounds, by which we express our thoughts and ideas."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 13. "His fears will detect him, but he shall not escape."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 64. "_Whose_ is equally applicable to persons or things."--WEBSTER _in Sanborn's Gram._, p. 95.

"One negative destroys another, or is equivalent to an affirmative."-- _Bullions, Eng. Gram._, p. 118.

"No sooner does he peep into The world, but he has done his do."--_Hudibras_.

CHAPTER X.--PREPOSITIONS.