The Grammar of English Grammars Part 88

"Above, below, without, within, around, Confus'd, unnumber'd mult.i.tudes are found."--_Pope, on Fame_.

OBS. 6.--It comports with the name and design of this work, which is a broad synopsis of grammatical criticism, to notice here one other absurdity; namely, the doctrine of "_sentential nouns_." There is something of this in several late grammars: as, "The prepositions, after, before, ere, since, till, and until, frequently govern _sentential_ nouns; and after, before, since, notwithstanding, and some others, frequently govern a noun or p.r.o.noun _understood_. A preposition governing a sentential noun, is, by Murray and others, considered a _conjunction_; and a preposition governing a noun understood, an _adverb_."--J. L. PARKHURST: _in Sanborn's Gram._, p. 123. "Example: 'He will, _before he dies_, sway the sceptre.'

_He dies_ is a sentential noun, third person, singular number; and is governed by _before_; _before he dies_, being equivalent in meaning to _before his death_."--_Sanborn, Gram._, p. 176. "'_After they had waited_ a long time, they departed.' After _waiting_."--_Ib._ This last solution supposes the phrase, "_waiting a long time_," or at least the participle _waiting_, to be a _noun_; for, upon the author's principle of equivalence, "_they had waited_," will otherwise be a "_sentential_" _participle_--a thing however as good and as cla.s.sical as the other!

OBS. 7.--If a preposition can ever be justly said to take a sentence for its object, it is chiefly in certain ancient expressions, like the following: "For _in that_ he died, he died unto sin once; but _in that_ he liveth, he liveth unto G.o.d."--_Rom._, vi, 10. "My Spirit shall not always strive with man, _for that_ he also is flesh."--_Gen._, vi, 3. "For, _after that_, in the wisdom of G.o.d, the world by wisdom knew not G.o.d, it pleased G.o.d by the foolishness of preaching to save them that believe."--_1 Cor._, i, 21. Here, _in, for_, and _after_, are all followed by the word _that_; which Tooke, Webster, Frazee, and some others, will have to be "a subst.i.tute," or "p.r.o.noun," representing the sentence which follows it, and governed by the preposition. But _that_, in this sense, is usually, and perhaps more properly, reckoned a conjunction. And if we take it so, _in, for_, and _after_, (unless the latter be an adverb,) must either be reckoned conjunctions also, or be supposed to govern sentences. The expressions however are little used; because "_in that_" is nearly equivalent to _as_; "_for that_" can be better expressed by _because_; and "_after that_," which is equivalent to [Greek: epeide], _postquam_, may well be rendered by the term, _seeing that_, or _since_. "_Before that_ Philip called thee," is a similar example; but "_that_" is here needless, and "_before_" may be pa.r.s.ed as a conjunctive adverb of time. I have one example more: "But, _besides that_ he attempted it formerly with no success, it is certain the Venetians keep too watchful an eye,"

&c.--_Addison_. This is good English, but the word "_besides_" if it be not a conjunction, may as well be called an adverb, as a preposition.

OBS. 8.--There are but few words in the list of prepositions, that are not sometimes used as being of some other part of speech. Thus _bating, excepting, concerning, touching, respecting, during, pending_, and a part of the compound _notwithstanding_, are literally participles; and some writers, in opposition to general custom, refer them always to their original cla.s.s. Unlike most other prepositions, they do not refer to _place_, but rather to _action, state_, or _duration_; for, even as prepositions, they are still allied to participles. Yet to suppose them always participles, as would Dr. Webster and some others, is impracticable.

Examples: "They speak _concerning_ virtue."--_Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram._, p. 69. Here _concerning_ cannot be a participle, because its antecedent term is a _verb_, and the meaning is, "they _speak_ of virtue." "They are bound _during life_." that is, _durante vita_, life continuing, or, as long as life lasts. So, "_Notwithstanding this_," i.e., "_hoc non obstante_,"

this not hindering. Here the nature of the construction seems to depend on the order of the words. "Since he had succeeded, _notwithstanding them_, peaceably to the throne."--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 31. "This is a correct English idiom, Dr. Lowth's _criticism_, to the contrary _notwithstanding_."--_Webster's Improved Gram._, p. 85. In the phrase, "_notwithstanding them_," the former word is clearly a preposition governing the latter; but Dr. Webster doubtless supposed the word "_criticism_" to be in the nominative case, put absolute with the participle: and so it would have been, had he written _not withstanding_ as two words, like "_non obstante_;" but the compound word _notwithstanding_ is not a participle, because there is no verb _to notwithstand_. But _notwithstanding_, when placed before a nominative, or before the conjunction _that_, is a conjunction, and, as such, must be rendered in Latin by _tamen_, yet, _quamvis_, although, or _nihilominus_, nevertheless.

OBS. 9.--_For_, when it signifies _because_, is a conjunction: as, "Boast not thyself of to-morrow; _for_ thou knowest not what a day may bring forth."--_Prov._, xxvii, 1. _For_ has this meaning, and, according to Dr.

Johnson, is a conjunction, when it precedes _that_; as, "Yet _for that_ the worst men are most ready to remove, I would wish them chosen by discretion of wise men."--_Spenser._ The phrase, as I have before suggested, is almost obsolete; but Murray, in one place, adopts it from Dr. Beattie: "For _that_ those parts of the verb are not properly called tenses."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 75. How he would have pa.r.s.ed it, does not appear. But both words are connectives. And, from the a.n.a.logy of those terms which serve as links to other terms, I should incline to take _for that, in that, after that_, and _besides that_, (in which a known conjunction is put last,) as complex conjunctions; and also, to take _as for, as to_, and _because of_, (in which a known preposition is put last,) as complex prepositions. But there are other regular and equivalent expressions that ought in general to be preferred to any or all of these.

OBS. 10.--Several words besides those contained in the list above, are (or have been) occasionally employed in English as prepositions: as, _A_, (chiefly used before participles,) _abaft, adown, afore, aloft, aloof, alongside, anear, aneath, anent, aslant, aslope, astride, atween, atwixt, besouth, bywest, cross, dehors, despite, inside, left-hand, maugre, minus, onto, opposite, outside, per, plus, sans, spite, thorough, traverse, versus, via, withal, withinside_.

OBS. 11.--Dr. Lowth says, "The particle _a_ before participles, in the phrases _a_ coming, _a_ going, _a_ walking, _a_ shooting, &c. and before nouns, as _a_-bed, _a_-board, _a_-sh.o.r.e, _a_-foot, &c. seems to be _a true and genuine preposition_, a little disguised by familiar use and quick p.r.o.nunciation. Dr. Wallis supposes it to be the preposition _at_. I rather think it is the preposition _on_."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 65; _Churchill's_, 268. There is no need of supposing it to be either. It is not from _on_; for in Saxon it sometimes accompanied _on_: as in the phrase, "_on a weoruld_;" that is, "_on to ages_;" or, as Wickliffe rendered it, "_into worldis_;" or, as our version has it, "_for ever_." See _Luke_, i, 55. This preposition was in use long before either _a_ or _an_, as an article, appeared in its present form in the language; and, for ought I can discover, it may be as old as either _on_ or _at_. _An_, too, is found to have had at times the sense and construction of _in_ or _on_; and this usage is, beyond doubt, older than that which makes it an article. _On_, however, was an exceedingly common preposition in Saxon, being used almost always where we now put _on, in, into, upon_, or _among_, and sometimes, for _with_ or _by_; so, sometimes, where _a_ was afterwards used: thus, "What in the Saxon Gospel of John, is, 'Ic wylle gan _on_ fixoth,' is, in the English version, 'I go _a_ fis.h.i.+ng.' Chap, xxi, ver. 3." See _Lowth's Gram._, p. 65; _Churchill's_, 269. And _a_ is now sometimes equivalent to _on_; as, "He would have a learned University make Barbarisms a purpose."--_Bentley, Diss. on Phalaris_, p. 223. That is,--"_on_ purpose."

How absurdly then do some grammarians interpret the foregoing text!--"I go _on_ a fis.h.i.+ng."--_Alden's Gram._, p. 117. "I go _on_ a fis.h.i.+ng voyage or business."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 221; _Merchant's_, 101. "It may not be improper," says Churchill in another place, "to observe here, that the preposition _on_, is too frequently p.r.o.nounced as if it were the vowel _a_, in ordinary conversation; and this corruption _is_ [has] become so prevalent, that I have even met with 'laid it _a oneside_' in a periodical publication. It should have been '_on one side_,' if the expression were meant to be particular; '_aside_,' if general."--_New Gram._, p. 345. By these writers, _a_ is also supposed to be sometimes a corruption of _of_: as, "Much in the same manner, Thomas _of_ Becket, by very frequent and familiar use, became Thomas _a_ Becket; and one _of the_ clock, or perhaps _on the_ clock, is written one o'clock, but p.r.o.nounced one _a_ clock. The phrases with _a_ before a participle are out of use in the solemn style; but still prevail in familiar discourse. They are established by long usage, and good authority; and there seems to be no reason, why they should be utterly rejected."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 66. "Much in the same manner, John _of_ Nokes, and John _of_ Styles, become John _a_ Nokes, and John _a_ Styles: and one _of the_ clock, or rather _on the_ clock, is written one _o_'clock, but p.r.o.nounced one _a_ clock. The phrases with a before participles, are out of use in the solemn style; but still prevail in familiar discourse."--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 269.

OBS. 12.--The following are _examples_ of the less usual prepositions, _a_, and others that begin with _a_: "And he set--three thousand and six hundred overseers to set the people a work."--_2 Chron._, ii, 18. "Who goeth _a_ warfare any time at his own charges?"--_1 Cor._, ix, 7. "And the mixed mult.i.tude that was among them fell _a_ l.u.s.ting."--_Num._, xi, 4.

"And sweet Billy Dimond, _a_ patting his hair up."

--_Feast of the Poets_, p. 17.

"The G.o.d fell _a_ laughing to see his mistake."

--_Ib._, p. 18.

"You'd have thought 'twas the bishops or judges _a_ coming."

--_Ib._, p. 22.

"A place on the lower deck, _abaft_ the mainmast."--_Gregory's Dict._ "A moment gazed _adown_ the dale."--_Scott, L. L._, p. 10. "_Adown_ Strath-Gartney's valley broad."--_Ib._, p. 84. "For _afore_ the harvest, when the bud is perfect," &c.--_Isaiah_, xviii, 5. "Where the great luminary _aloof_ the vulgar constellations thick,"--See _Milton's Paradise Lost_, B. iii, l. 576. "The great luminary _aloft_ the vulgar constellations thick."--_Johnson's Dict., w. Aloft_. "Captain Falconer having previously gone _alongside_, the Const.i.tution."--_Newspaper_.

"Seventeen s.h.i.+ps sailed for New England, and _aboard_ these above fifteen hundred persons."--_Robertson's Amer._, ii, 429. "There is a willow grows _askant_ the brook:" Or, as in some editions: "There is a willow grows _aslant_ the brook."--SHAK., _Hamlet_, Act iv, 7. "_Aslant_ the dew-bright earth."--_Thomson_. "Swift as meteors glide _aslope_ a summer eve."--_Fenton_. "_Aneath_ the heavy rain."--_James Hogg_, "With his magic spectacles _astride_ his nose."--_Merchant's Criticisms_.

"_Atween_ his downy wings be furnished, there."

--_Wordsworth's Poems_, p. 147.

"And there a season _atween_ June and May."

--_Castle of Indolence_, C. i, st. 2.

OBS. 13.--The following are examples of rather unusual prepositions beginning with _b, c_, or _d_; "Or where wild-meeting oceans boil _besouth_ Magellan."--_Burns_. "Whereupon grew that _by-word_, used by the Irish, that they dwelt _by-west_ the law, _which_ dwelt beyond the river _of the_ Barrow."--DAVIES: in _Joh. Dict._ Here Johnson calls _by-west_ a noun substantive, and Webster, as improperly, marks it for an adverb. No hyphen is needed in _byword_ or _bywest_. The first syllable of the latter is p.r.o.nounced _be_, and ought to be written so, if "_besouth_" is right.

"From Cephalonia _cross_ the surgy main Philaetius late arrived, a faithful swain."

--_Pope, Odys._, B. xx, l. 234.

"And _cross_ their limits cut a sloping way, Which the twelve signs in beauteous order sway."

--_Dryden's Virgil_.

"A fox was taking a walk one night _cross_ a village."--_L'Estrange_. "The enemy had cut down great trees _cross_ the ways."--_Knolles_. "DEHORS, prep. [Fr.] Without: as, '_dehors_ the land.' Blackstone."--_Worcester's Dict._, 8vo. "You have believed, _despite_ too our physical conformation."--_Bulwer_.

"And Roderick shall his welcome make, _Despite_ old spleen, for Douglas' sake."

--_Scott, L. L._, C. ii, st. 26.

OBS. 14.--The following quotations ill.u.s.trate further the list of unusual prepositions: "And she would be often weeping _inside_ the room while George was amusing himself without."--_Anna Ross_, p. 81. "Several nuts grow closely together, _inside_ this p.r.i.c.kly covering."--_Jacob Abbot_. "An other boy asked why the peachstone was not _outside_ the peach."--_Id._ "As if listening to the sounds _withinside_ it."--_Gardiner's Music of Nature_, p. 214. "Sir Knight, you well might mark the mound, _Left hand_ the town."--_Scott's Marmion_. "Thus Butler, _maugre_ his wicked intention, sent them home again."--_Sewel's Hist._, p. 256. "And, _maugre_ all that can be said in its favour."--_Stone, on Freemasonry_, p. 121. "And, _maugre_ the authority of Sterne, I even doubt its benevolence."--_West's Letters_, p. 29.

"I through the ample air in triumph high Shall lead h.e.l.l captive _maugre_ h.e.l.l."

--_Milton's P. L._, B. iii, l. 255.

"When Mr. Seaman arose in the morning, he found himself _minus_ his coat, vest, pocket-handkerchief, and tobacco-box."--_Newspaper_. "Throw some coals _onto_ the fire."--FORBY: _Worcester's Dict., w. Onto_. "Flour, at $4 _per_ barrel."--_Preston's Book-Keeping_. "Which amount, _per_ invoice, to $4000."--_Ib._ "_To Smiths_ is the substantive _Smiths, plus_ the preposition _to_."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, --33. "The Mayor of Lynn _versus_ Turner."--_Cowper's Reports_, p. 86. "Slaves were imported from Africa, _via_ Cuba."--_Society in America_, i, 327. "_Pending_ the discussion of this subject, a memorial was presented."--_Gov. Everett_.

"Darts his experienced eye and soon _traverse_ The whole battalion views their order due."--_Milton_.

"Because, when _thorough_ deserts vast And regions desolate they past."--_Hudibras_.

OBS. 15.--_Minus_, less, _plus_, more, _per_, by, _versus_, towards, or against, and _via_, by the way of, are Latin words; and it is not very consistent with the _purity_ of our tongue, to use them as above. _Sans_, without, is French, and not now heard with us. _Afore_ for _before, atween_ for _between, traverse_ for _across, thorough_ for _through_, and _withal_ for _with_, are obsolete. _Withal_ was never placed before its object, but was once very common at the end of a sentence. I think it not properly a preposition, but rather an adverb. It occurs in Shakspeare, and so does _sans_; as,

"I did laugh, _sans_ intermission, an hour by his dial."

--_As You Like It_.

"I pr'ythee, _whom_ doth he trot _withal_?"

--_Ib._

"_Sans_ teeth, _sans_ eyes, _sans_ taste, _sans_ every thing."

--_Ib._

OBS. 16.--Of the propriety and the nature of such expressions as the following, the reader may now judge for himself: "In consideration of what pa.s.ses sometimes _within-side of_ those vehicles."--_Spectator_, No. 533.

"Watch over yourself, and let nothing throw you _off from_ your guard."--_District School_, p. 54. "The windows broken, the door _off from_ the hinges, the roof open and leaky."--_Ib._, p. 71. "He was always a shrewd observer of men, _in and out of_ power."--_Knapp's Life of Burr_, p.

viii. "Who had never been broken _in to_ the experience of sea voyages."--_Timothy Flint_. "And there came a fire _out from before_ the Lord."--_Leviticus_, ix, 24. "Because eight readers _out of_ ten, it is believed, forget it."--_Brown's Estimate_, ii, 32. "Fifty days after the _Pa.s.sover_, and _their coming out of_ Egypt."--_Watts's Script. Hist._, p.

57. "As the mountains are _round about_ Jerusalem, so the Lord is _round about_ his people."--_Psal._, cxxv, 2. "Literally, 'I proceeded _forth from out of_ G.o.d and am come.'"--_Gurney's Essays_, p. 161. "But he that came _down from_ (or _from out of_) heaven."--_Ibid._

"Here none the last funereal rights receive; To be cast _forth the camp_, is all their friends can give."

--_Rowe's Lucan_, vi, 166.

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

PRAXIS X.--ETYMOLOGICAL.

_In the Tenth Praxis, it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the cla.s.ses and modifications of the_ ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, p.r.o.nOUNS, VERBS, PARTICIPLES, ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, _and_ PREPOSITIONS.

_The definitions to be given in the Tenth Praxis, are, two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a p.r.o.noun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb, two for a conjunction, one for a preposition, and one for an interjection. Thus_:--

EXAMPLE Pa.r.s.eD.

"Never adventure on too near an approach to what is evil."--_Maxims_.

_Never_ is an adverb of time. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question, _When? How long? How soon?_ or, _How often?_ including these which ask.