Aether and Gravitation Part 14

ART. 68. _Second Law of Thermodynamics._--This law was enunciated by Sadi Carnot in 1824, when he wrote an essay on the Motive Power of Heat.

Previous to the time of Carnot no definite relation seems to have been suggested between work and heat; Carnot, however, discovered what were those general laws which govern the relation between heat and work. In arriving at his conclusion, he based his results on the truth of the principle of the conservation of energy already referred to (Art. 52).

Carnot started his reasoning on the a.s.sumption that heat was matter, and therefore indestructible. The two great truths in relation to heat and work, enunciated by Carnot, are known as, first, a Cycle of operations; and, secondly, what he termed a Reversible Cycle. In order to be able to reason upon the work done by a heat-engine, say a steam-engine for example, Carnot stated we must imagine a cycle of operations, by which, at the end of such operations, the steam or water is brought back to exactly the same state in which it was at its start. He calls this a cycle of operations, and of it he says, that only at the conclusion of the cycle are we ent.i.tled to reason upon the relation between the work done and the heat spent in doing it. His other idea of the reversible cycle implies that an engine is reversible when, instead of using heat and getting work from it, the engine may be driven through the cycle of operations the reverse way, that is, by taking in work, it can pump back heat to the boiler again. Carnot showed that if you can obtain such a reversible engine, it is a perfect engine. All perfect engines, that is all reversible engines, will do exactly the same amount of work with the same amount of heat, the amount of work being strictly proportionate to the amount of heat consumed. I need hardly point out that the reversible engine, or the perfect engine of Carnot, is only the ideal one, as there is no engine in which all the heat is converted into work, as a great deal of the heat is radiated away and not converted into work at all.

Again, working from the standpoint that heat is matter, Carnot reasoned that in the heat-engine the work is performed, not by the actual consumption of heat, but by its transportation from a hot body to a cold one. Thus, by the fall of heat from a higher to a lower temperature, work could be done in the same way that work could be done by allowing water to fall from a higher to a lower level. The quant.i.ty of water which reaches the lower level is exactly the same as that which leaves the higher level, as none of the water is destroyed in the fall. He argued, therefore, that the work produced by a heat-engine was produced in a similar manner, the quant.i.ty of heat which reaches the condenser being supposed to be equal to that which left the source. Thus the work was done by the heat flowing from a hot body to a cold one, and, in doing this work, it lost its momentum like falling water, and was brought to rest. One of the most important points noted by Carnot is the necessity that, in all engines which derive work from heat, there must be two bodies at different temperatures, that is, a source and a condenser, which correspond to a hot and cold body, so that there may be the pa.s.sage of heat from the hot to the cold body. In order to get work out of heat it is absolutely necessary to have a hotter and a colder body. From this reasoning we learn, therefore, that work is obtained from heat by using up the heat of the hotter body, part of which is converted into actual work, while part is absorbed by the colder body.

So that wherever we have two bodies at different temperatures, according to the second law of thermodynamics, there we have the power of doing work by the transmission of heat, from the body of higher to the one of lower temperature.

That Carnot ultimately came to believe in the dynamical theory of heat, is proved by the following pa.s.sage taken from his notes on the Motive Power of Heat: "It would be ridiculous to suppose that it is an emission of matter, while the light which accompanies it could only be a movement. Could a motion produce matter? No! undoubtedly, it can only produce a motion. Heat is then the result of motion. It is plain then that it could be produced by the consumption of motive power, and that it could produce this power. Heat is then simply motive power, or rather motion which has changed its form. It is a movement among the particles of bodies. Wherever there is a destruction of motive power, there is at the same time production of heat in quant.i.ty exactly proportional to the quant.i.ty of motive power destroyed. Reciprocally, whenever there is destruction of heat there is production of motive power."

Let us apply this principle to the solar system, and endeavour to find out whether in that system we have, in relation to the heat thereof, either a cycle of operations or a reversible cycle. We have again to consider the sun as the source of all light and heat in the solar system, radiating forth on every side, year by year, the countless units of heat which go to form the continuance of all planetary life and existence. One of the problems that has confronted scientific men for many years is this, Where does the sun get its supply of heat from? When we remember the incessant loss of heat which the sun suffers through its radiation of heat into s.p.a.ce, we are compelled to ask, How is that supply maintained, and how has it been kept up through the countless ages of the past? Several suggestions have been made, and several theories advanced to account for the fact. Mayer, of Germany, suggested that the heat is partly maintained by the falling into the sun of meteors, which, like comets, pursue a path through the heavens, and are subject to the attractive influence of the sun. In the combustion of these meteorites, or meteors, he contended there were the means by which the light and heat of the sun might be maintained. Whatever theory, however, may be suggested as to the maintenance and the source of the continuity of the sun's heat, I do not think it has been suggested by any scientist that the heat emitted and radiated by the sun is ever returned in any way back to the sun from infinite s.p.a.ce, whether by reflection or by any other method. So far as I can learn, there are no facts in connection with the solar system which would lead us to make that a.s.sumption. On the contrary, experience and experiment teach us that radiation implies loss of heat, and that the body, which so radiates, ultimately becomes cold, unless its internal heat is kept up by some means or other. So that the terms introduced by Carnot in the second law of thermodynamics, viz. that of a Cycle of Operations and of a Reversible Cycle, do not apply to the solar system, and the solar system, viewed from the standpoint of a machine, with the sun as the source of the heat, does not represent a perfect engine, that is, all the heat is not used up in doing work, some of it being radiated out into s.p.a.ce. Wherever, however, the heat, that is the aetherial heat waves generated by the sun, comes into contact with a planet, as Mercury, Venus, or Jupiter, then, in accordance with Carnot's reasoning, work is done. Carnot points out that, in order for work to be done, we must have a source and a condenser, that is, two bodies at different temperatures, a hot body and a cold one. Now these conditions of work are satisfactorily fulfilled in the solar system, and as a result work is performed. We have the sun with its huge fires, and its intensity of heat, representing the source or the hot body, while every planet and every meteor and comet, that come under its influence, represent the cold body, and between the two work is always going on. That work is represented by the repulsive power of heat, which I have already indicated, so that, viewed from Carnot's standpoint with relation to the motive power of heat, we find that there are in the solar system those conditions which govern work, and by which, from a mechanical standpoint, work is performed; further, that work takes the form of a repulsive power on every planet or other body upon which the aetherial heat waves fall. Therefore, from the second law of thermodynamics we have another proof of this repulsive power of heat already indicated and referred to in Art. 63.

ART. 69. _Ident.i.ty of Heat and Light._--We have seen from the preceding articles of this chapter, that heat is due to a periodic wave motion of the Aether, and in the succeeding chapter we shall also see that light is due to some kind of periodic wave motion in the Aether. So that not only heat, but light also, it would appear, is due to certain periodic wave motions that are set up in the Aether by the vibrations of hot or luminous bodies. The question therefore arises, how many wave motions are there in the Aether? Are there different wave motions which in one case produce light, and in the other case produce heat, or are light and heat both produced by the same set of aetherial waves? The ident.i.ty of light waves with heat waves is manifested by the fact that wherever we get light we get heat, as can be proved in many ways. One of the simplest proofs is found in the common lens or burning-gla.s.s, by which the light waves are brought to a focus, and as a result, heat is manifested. Although there is this close ident.i.ty between light and heat waves, yet there must be some distinction between the heat and light waves, because while light waves affect the eye, heat waves do not.

There is actually a difference between the two kinds of waves, and that difference is one of period or length. It must not, however, be thought that there are really two cla.s.ses or sets of waves in the Aether, one of which could be called light waves, and the other heat waves, but rather the same wave may be manifested in two different forms because of its different wave lengths. In one case the waves may affect the eye, and we have the sensation of sight, but in the other case they affect the body, and we experience the sensation of warmth. An a.n.a.logy from the waves of sound may make these facts much clearer. We know that sound travels about 1100 feet per second. If, therefore, we have a bell which vibrates about 1100 times per second, we should have a wave one foot long. If it vibrated 100 times per second the waves would be 11 feet long, while if it vibrated only 11 times per second, the waves would be 100 feet long.

Now the impression made upon the ear depends upon the number of vibrations the bell makes per second, and from the rate of vibration we get the idea of pitch. If the vibrations are very rapid, then we get a note of high pitch, and if the vibrations are slow, then we get a note of low pitch. A note of high pitch, therefore, will correspond to waves of short length, while a low note will correspond to waves of a greater length; so that the greater the rapidity with which a sounding bell vibrates, the shorter will be the length of the sound waves which it generates, and _vice versa_. The range of the ear however for sound waves is limited, so that if the vibrations be too rapid or too slow, the ear may not be able to respond to the vibrations, and so no distinct impression of the sound will be conveyed to the brain. It need hardly be pointed out, that both the very short and long waves are of exactly the same character as those of a medium length, which the ear can detect, the only difference being one of rapidity. We do not therefore suggest that in the case of sound, where the vibrations lie outside the compa.s.s of the ear, those which lie outside are not sound waves, or that they are different from those which lie within the compa.s.s of the ear, and which the ear can detect. Whether the sound waves are long or short, whether they can be detected by the ear or not, we still say that all are sound waves, and that all are due to the vibrations of the sounding body, which vibrations are transmitted through the air, in waves, that fall upon the tympanum or drum of the ear, and set that vibrating, which vibrations are transmitted to the auditory nerve and so give rise to the sensation of hearing. In a similar manner, every atom and every particle of matter, every planet, every sun and star, is constantly in a state of vibration, sending off aetherial waves on every side. Nothing in Nature is absolutely cold, nothing is absolutely still. Therefore all matter, whether in the atomic form, or in the planetary or solar world, is constantly generating aetherial waves, which travel from their source or origin with the velocity of light. If these aetherial waves so generated fall within certain limits, then they affect the eye, and we get the sensation of sight. To do this they must vibrate 5000 billion times per second, and if they fail to do this, they fail to give rise to the sensation of sight. If the aetherial waves fall below this limit, then they affect the body, and give rise to the sensation of heat. For it must be remembered, that as the ear has a certain compa.s.s for sound waves, which may vary in different individuals, so the eye has also a certain compa.s.s for aetherial waves, with the result that some waves may be too slow or too rapid to affect the eye, and consequently fail to give rise to the sensation of sight. When that is so, the sensation of warmth helps us to detect these longer waves, so that the longer waves would warm us and make their presence felt in that manner. We shall see in the next chapter that there are both shorter and longer waves, which may be detected in other ways. From these facts it can be readily seen, that we have a common origin for both light and heat, and that they are both due to periodic waves in the Aether, and therefore all the laws that govern heat should also govern the phenomena of light. Further, if heat possesses a dynamical value, and if there be such a truth as the motive power of heat, then there ought equally to be a motive power of light; and further, if heat possesses a repulsive motion, then because of the ident.i.ty of light and heat, light should equally possess this repulsive power, because it is due to similar periodic wave motions in the Aether. With regard to the same laws governing both light and heat, we shall see that this fact also holds good. We have already seen (Art.

66) that the intensity of heat is inversely as the square of the distance, and we shall also see in the succeeding chapter that the same law holds good in relation to light. We have seen (Art. 65) that the path of a ray of heat is that of a straight line; we shall see in the succeeding chapter that the path of a ray of light is that of a straight line also.

Indeed, there is no law applicable to heat which is not applicable to light. The law of reflection and refraction of heat equally holds good in relation to light; and further, Professor Forbes has shown that heat can be polarized in a similar manner to the polarization of light. This last fact is considered the most conclusive argument as to the ident.i.ty of light and heat, and proves that the only difference between the two is simply the difference corresponding to the difference between a high note and a low note in sound. That being so, I hope to be able to show that as heat possesses a dynamical value, so light equally possesses a dynamical value, and that as heat is a repulsive motion, then light must equally possess a similar repulsive motion, that motion always being directed from the central body, being caused by the same agency, viz.

the waves of the Aether, the common source of both light and heat. I purpose to address myself to this subject in the following chapter, which I have termed Light, a Mode of Motion.

CHAPTER VII

LIGHT, A MODE OF MOTION

ART. 70. _Light, a Mode of Motion._--No subject has in the past received greater attention from philosophers and scientists than that involved in the question as to "What is Light?" Indeed, it may truthfully be said, that even to-day its exact character is not positively known. That it is due like heat to some periodic wave motion in the Aether is known, but the exact character of that wave motion has yet to be determined. As in the case of heat, so in the case of light, there have been two theories which have contended with each other for supremacy in endeavouring to answer the question as to "What is Light?" Those two theories are known as the Emission or Corpuscular Theory, and the Undulatory or Wave Theory. The corpuscular theory was introduced and developed by Newton in his work on _Optics_, which ranks second only to the _Principia_ as a work revealing masterly research and scientific genius. Newton supposed that a luminous or lighted body actually emitted minute particles, which were shot out from the body with the velocity of light, that is, at the rate of 186,000 miles per second. These minute particles he termed corpuscles. In the work just referred to regarding this matter, he asks the question, "Are not rays of light very small bodies emitted from s.h.i.+ning substances?" These small particles or corpuscles were supposed by him to actually strike the retina of the eye, and so produce the sensation of Sight, in the same way that odorous particles entering the nostril, come into contact with the olfactory nerves and produce the sensation of Smell. In order, however, to account for certain phenomena of light, he was compelled to postulate an aetherial medium to fill all s.p.a.ce, in which his luminous corpuscles travelled, and which would excite waves in that medium. In his eighteenth query on this point he asks: "Is not the heat of a warm room conveyed through the vacuum by the vibration of a much subtler medium than air, and is not this medium the same with that medium by which light is reflected or refracted, and by whose vibrations light communicates Heat to bodies, and is put into fits of easy reflection and easy transmission?" The corpuscular theory, however, received its death-blow when, in compet.i.tion with the wave theory of light, as developed by Young, it was found that the latter theory satisfactorily accounted for certain phenomena as the refraction of light, which the corpuscular theory did not adequately account for.

Even while Newton was developing his theory, Huyghens, a contemporary of Newton, was developing another theory which is now known as the undulatory or wave theory. Huyghens drew his conclusions from the a.n.a.logy of sound. He knew that sounds were propagated by waves through the air, and from the region of the known, endeavoured to carry the principle into the region of the unknown, a strictly philosophical method, and one in accordance with the second Rule of Philosophy. He supposed that light, therefore, like sound, might be due to wave motion, but if it were wave motion, there must have been a medium to propagate the waves. In order to account for this wave motion, he supposed all s.p.a.ce to be filled with a luminiferous Aether, which would be to his light waves what air is to sound waves. In this conception he was supported by Euler the mathematician, and in 1690 he was able to give a satisfactory explanation of the reflection and refraction of light, on the hypothesis that light was due to wave motion in the Aether. It was not, however, till the advent of Thomas Young, that the undulatory or wave theory reached its perfection, and finally overthrew its compet.i.tor the corpuscular theory. Young made himself thoroughly acquainted with wave motion of all kinds, and applied his knowledge and experience to the phenomena of light, and from the a.n.a.logies so obtained, he gradually built up the undulatory theory, and gave to it a foundation from which it has not yet been moved. Young made use of the same aetherial medium in order to propagate the wave motion of light in the same way that Huyghens did. From that conception, the Aether has been gradually perfected, until we have the conception which has been presented to the reader in Chapter IV., in which I have endeavoured to show that this aetherial medium is matter, but infinitely more rarefied and infinitely more elastic, but notwithstanding its extreme rarefaction and elasticity, it possesses inertia, because it is gravitative. It is this Aether, then, that is concerned in the propagation of light, and is the universal medium which is to light what air is to sound. Young, therefore, having applied himself to the wave motion of sound, from such researches was able to explain the physical cause of colour, and that phenomenon termed interference.

We will therefore look at wave motion, in order to understand the wave theory of light.

Now in all wave motion, whether it be water waves or sound waves, that which is propagated or conveyed from place to place is energy, or motion. If a stone is thrown into water, a series of concentric circles of waves are generated, which spread out with increasing size, but decreasing power or motion, regularly on all sides. The water, however, does not move away from the generating source. There is a motion of the water, but it is simply a wave motion, so that the propagation of a wave is the propagation of motion, rather than the transference of the actual water which const.i.tutes the wave. In the case of sound waves, we have again an ill.u.s.tration of the same principle. For example, suppose we strike a bell, and so set the particles of that bell in a state of vibration. These vibrations give the air in contact with the bell a forward movement, and then, owing to the elasticity and inertia of the air, a backward movement is set up, with the result that a series of waves are set in motion from the bell on every side, which gradually diminish in intensity the farther they recede from the generating body.

According to the wave theory, therefore, we have to picture all heated and luminous bodies in a state of vibration, and the atoms of such luminous bodies imparting the vibrations to the atoms of the Aether, in the same way that the atoms of a bell impart their vibrations to the atoms of the air in contact with it. These vibrations are then propagated through the Aether in waves, which, entering the eye, impinge or strike upon the retina at the back of the eye, and being transmitted to the brain give rise to the sensation of sight. It must not be forgotten that the waves of Aether, as pointed out in Art. 64 in relation to heat, really form spherical sh.e.l.ls which radiate out in all directions from the central body which gives rise to them. Thus it can be seen, that all points in the spherical wave which are at equal distances from the vibratory or luminous body, must possess the same intensity, and possess equal lighting powers. Light, therefore, like heat, is due to a periodic wave motion set up in the Aether by the vibrating atomic motion of heated or luminous bodies. It must be also noticed, that if we could see the air through which the sound waves are pa.s.sing, we should see that each atom or particle of the atmosphere was vibrating to and fro in the direction of propagation. If, however, we could see an atom of Aether in vibration, accepting the principle that Aether is atomic, we should see that each aetherial atom is not vibrating in the direction of propagation, but across the line in which the wave is travelling. Thus the vibration of the air is said to be longitudinal, but the vibrations of the Aether are transversal. An ill.u.s.tration of the transverse motion of a light wave may be obtained by taking a rope and imparting to it a series of undulations by shaking it up and down, when it will be observed that the wave motion of the rope is transverse to the straight line in which it is propagated. The physical explanation of the transverse vibration of light will be dealt with in a subsequent article.

Now the question suggests itself to our mind, as to what effect the atomicity of the Aether has upon the undulatory theory of light. Does it establish it upon a firmer basis, or does it in any way destroy its truth as a theory? I venture to think that the atomicity of the Aether in no sense destroys any part of the undulatory theory of light, but rather tends to confirm and establish it upon a logical and philosophical basis.

For instance, as has been pointed out in Art. 47, in order for the undulatory theory to have any existence at all, it is essential that the Aether should possess the property of elasticity. But how the Aether possessed the property of elasticity while at the same time it was frictionless, and therefore possessed no ma.s.s, has been a problem that has taxed the ingenuity and resources of scientists for a century past, and up to the present is a problem which still remains unsolved. Now, however, with our atomic Aether, it is just as easy to conceive Aether transmitting a wave as it is for air to transmit sound waves, or water to transmit water waves.

Tyndall, in his _Lectures on Light_, seems to have appreciated the difficulty, and to avoid confusion, again and again refers to a _particle_ of Aether. While Huyghens himself in speculating upon the elasticity of the Aether in his _Traite de la Lumiere_, 1678, makes a suggestion as to its origin, which practically amounts to the fact that the aetherial atom which gives rise to this elasticity is the core or centre of a vortex ring. Thus it can be seen that the elasticity of the Aether, so essential to the undulatory theory, is a problem that cannot be solved apart from recognizing the hypothesis of an atomic Aether.

Then, again, in the undulatory theory of light, the density of the Aether around molecules of bodies has to be taken into consideration to account for such phenomena as the refraction and reflection of light, but, as we have seen in Art. 46, such a property as density is inconceivable in connection with a medium which is neither atomic and possesses no ma.s.s. On the a.s.sumption, however, of an atomic and gravitative Aether, the difficulty is at once solved, and the density of the Aether, and different degrees of density are at once placed upon a logical and philosophical basis. So that in relation to the elasticity and density of the Aether upon which the transmission and reflection of wave motion depend, an atomic and gravitative Aether establishes and confirms the undulatory theory.

There is also another aspect of the subject that is worthy of notice. I refer to the effect of an atomic and gravitative Aether upon Newton's corpuscular theory of light. Newton's corpuscular theory failed in not being able to account for the relative velocity of light in rare and denser media, and if by an atomic Aether in conjunction with the undulatory theory, the phenomenon can be accounted for, as I believe it can, then our aetherial vortex atoms are a.n.a.logous to Newton's corpuscles. This distinction will, however, have to be made, viz. that Newton supposed his luminous corpuscles to be emitted by the luminous body, whereas in the conception of our aetherial atoms, we conceive them to be stationary relatively in s.p.a.ce, and only subject to those vibrations and oscillations that give rise to the aetherial waves recognized in the undulatory theory.

It would indeed be a consummation to be desired, if, by an atomic Aether, it can be proved that Newton's Corpuscular Theory was made to harmonize with the Undulatory Theory, and that it can be I am profoundly convinced. Professor Preston is also of this view, for in his _Theory of Light_, writing on this subject, he says, page 19: "In conclusion, we may state that we believe an ingenious exponent of the emission theory, by suitably framing his fundamental postulates, might fairly meet all the objections that have been raised against it."

We will now apply the hypothesis of an atomic and gravitating Aether to Huyghens' principle of wave propagation, and see if this atomicity in any way destroys that principle, or whether it simplifies and confirms it.

Let us briefly review our conception of the Aether before making the application. In the first place, because Aether is gravitative, we learned from Art. 45 that it surrounds all bodies in the universe, from the smallest atom to the largest sun or star in the firmament of heaven.

Our sun, then, which is to our system the source of all its light, will be surrounded by what are practically spherical aetherial envelopes or sh.e.l.ls which decrease in density as they recede from the sun (Art. 46).

These aetherial sh.e.l.ls are, according to our conception, made up of minute aetherial spherical vortex atoms possessing polarity and rotation (Art. 43), and these atoms will be closer together the nearer they are to the central body, because of the increased density of the Aether due to the attractive influence of the sun. Thus, when a wave motion is set up in the Aether around the sun by the intense atomic activity of that incandescent body, each atom of that aetherial spherical sh.e.l.l or envelope partic.i.p.ates in the motion or impulse received, at one and the same time, so that the wave is transmitted from envelope to envelope, by the elasticity of the aetherial atoms which compose the envelope or sh.e.l.l. Thus the light wave is always spherical in form, or nearly so, as the rotational and orbital motion of the sun affect the exact shape of the aetherial envelope as we shall learn more fully later on.

Further, the wave front always takes the form of a sphere, as the waves are radiated out from the luminous body in all directions, and we shall learn, in the next article, that the vibrations are always in the wave front, that is, take place on the surface of each of these envelopes, and these vibrations are also transverse to the propagation of the wave.

As these aetherial envelopes extend right into s.p.a.ce, the wave is transmitted from envelope to envelope by means of the aetherial atoms with the velocity of 186,000 miles per second, but as each succeeding envelope possesses a larger surface than the preceding one, the intensity of the light is proportionally decreased. The surface of such envelope is always proportionate to the square of the radius, the other quant.i.ties remaining equal. So that the intensity of the light waves, which are coincident with the surface of each spherical envelope, will always vary inversely as the square of the distance from the luminous body, which agrees with the law of inverse squares that governs light and heat.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig: 4.]

We have considered the wave motion as a whole, that is, we have viewed it from the standpoint of the whole of the aetherial elastic envelope.

Now we will look at the subject from the atomic standpoint, and see if it is in accordance with Huyghens' principle of wave propagation.

We will suppose that an undulatory movement is started by a luminous body at point _A_ situated in the Aether, and surrounded by that medium.

_A_ may represent a part of any luminous body, as the sun or star, while _B_ _C_ and _B'_ _C'_ represent a segment of the aetherial envelopes already referred to, which exist around the sun. We will further suppose that the small dots surrounding the luminous body represent the aetherial atoms forming the envelope, which transmit the impulse or energy received from the atomic vibrations of the luminous body. As each aetherial atom is moved or pushed forwards, each atom directly in contact with it accepts and transmits the impulse. But each of these atoms stands in relation to those in front of them, as they did in relation to the first row of atoms, so to speak, and therefore exert a corresponding impulse on the front row.

But the third row stands in relation to the fourth row as the second row did to the third, and so on to infinity. Thus each atom being surrounded by other atoms may be looked on as the centre of a new wave system, so that every particle of the wave system is itself a centre of a new wave system which is transmitted in all directions. As these innumerable and minute wave systems co-operate with one another, they form a princ.i.p.al wave system which is coincident with the surface of the spherical envelope, part of which is represented by _B_ _C_. Then if we conceive of all the aetherial atoms in part of the princ.i.p.al wave system _B_ _C_, as themselves becoming the centre of wave propagation, by their wave systems the princ.i.p.al wave will be transmitted further on into s.p.a.ce to another aetherial envelope _B'_ _C'_, which represents part of another princ.i.p.al wave, which again is coincident with the surface of one of the spherical aetherial envelopes. So that by the action of the aetherial atoms which exist on all sides of the luminous body, the aetherial wave can be transmitted from atom to atom in more or less spherical form.

Now let us compare this explanation of the transmission of light by an atomic Aether with the celebrated Huyghens' principle which is thus enunciated. "When an undulatory movement propagates itself through an elastic medium, every _particle_ imitates the movement of the particle first excited. But every particle stands in relation to the adjoining ones in exactly the same relation that the first particle did to its neighbours, and consequently must exert upon those surrounding it, exactly the same influence as the first did. Every vibratory particle is therefore to be regarded as if it were the originally excited particle of the wave system; and as the innumerable and simultaneous elementary wave systems co-operate with one another at each instant, we obtain exactly that princ.i.p.al wave system by which the elastic medium appears at any moment to be moved." Now here, in this statement, we have the definite term _particles_ used several times by Huyghens. But in the generally accepted theory of the Aether, such a term is unknown and unrecognized, with the obvious result that the definite and simple statement of Huyghens loses all its simplicity and meaning. Replace, however, the non-atomic Aether as at present recognized, by an atomic and gravitating Aether, and then Huyghens' exposition or principle stands out in all its simplicity and clearness, and finds in an atomic Aether its literal fulfilment and complete verification.

In conclusion on this point, viz. that light is a mode of aetherial motion, let us endeavour to form a mental picture of our atomic and aetherial world. We have to remember that every particle and atom of matter in existence are ever vibrating, and by their vibrations are ever creating and generating Aether waves in the aetherial medium. These waves, begetting others, the process is continued until they are either intercepted and brought to rest by other matter, or else speed away until they reach the boundary of s.p.a.ce.

Now it is scarcely necessary for me to say, that if one atom can create and generate these Aether waves, a thousand atoms can create them in greater abundance still, and millions of atoms in even still greater abundance, and so on in proportion to the quant.i.ty or bulk of the matter vibrating. Further, as it is with quant.i.ty, so will it be with intensity, or activity of vibration. The more intensely an atom vibrates, the more intense would be the movement of the generated Aether waves, and the intensity would be in exact proportion to the intensity of the motion of the atoms vibrating. In regard to the power of atomic motions or vibrations, those are the greatest and most intense in energy or motion, which are produced by combustion or burning. The chemical activity by which the burning is brought about arouses and excites the atoms of matter subject thereto, into an intensity of motion, thousands, it may be millions of times greater than can be produced by any other known means. Therefore it can be readily seen, that the Aether waves generated by this means will be greater and more abundant, both in their volume and intensity, than the Aether waves produced merely by a cold body. For example, take a candle at night-time when the light has disappeared; look at it and feel it. Though its atoms are all in motion, generating Aether waves which are impressed with its own particular form and colour, yet it can scarcely be seen even at a short distance; but light it, and what a change takes place! We can both see it, and are enabled by its light to see other things also. By the power of combustion, its atoms have been excited into greater energy or motion, generating and speeding Aether waves on every side, and these Aether waves being reflected and re-reflected by the atoms of the air, and the walls of the house, give light to all that are in the house. I must now ask the reader to refer to Art. 64 on Radiant Heat, in order that we may recall facts regarding the heat of the sun. Remembering the intensity of the heat of the sun as calculated by Herschel and others, and remembering that the sun is 1,200,000 times larger in volume than our earth, the question naturally suggests itself to our mind, what must be the volume and intensity of the light waves as they flow from the sun into s.p.a.ce? What a storm of fury and of motion must there be within the aetherial atmosphere around the sun, and with what volume and power must these light waves speed away from so mighty a source! Some idea may be gained from the fact that they speed away to the distant Neptune, a distance of nearly three thousand millions of miles, and impart to that planet the energy of light and heat which to the planet forms the physical source of all its life and activities. Thus from the sun, the centre of the solar system, there are ever being poured forth into s.p.a.ce these aetherial light waves. The solar fires are ever glowing, and their flames ever burning, robing the solar disc with its quivering fringe, or madly leaping on every side to a distance of one hundred thousand miles, and by their madness las.h.i.+ng the aetherial atmosphere into fury, creating aetherial waves, myriads upon myriads, and sending them with lightning speed across the intervening s.p.a.ce. As swift-footed messengers they come, the bearers of life and beauty to distant planets. They come to this our island home in s.p.a.ce, these aetherial light waves, like rich argosies freighted with the treasures of light, of life, of beauty, and of glory, and the transmission of this life and beauty is effected by the incessant wave motion generated in the Aether by the central body of our solar system, the sun. Let us therefore endeavour to form a mental picture of this aetherial wave motion with its transverse vibrations.

ART. 71. _Transverse Vibration of Light._--In the previous article we saw that the vibration of light was transverse to the line of propagation. If we could see the particles of air which are vibrating when sound waves are produced, we should find that each particle or atom is vibrating backwards and forwards in the direction of propagation.

In the case of an aetherial atom, however, which, according to our own theory, partic.i.p.ates in the vibration, we have to try to conceive of each atom as vibrating across the line of propagation. So that if _A_ _B_ represents a ray of light proceeding from a luminous body, as the sun (Fig. 5), then the vibration must be across the line, as up and down and across that line as shown in the figure, each phase of the vibration being at right angles to the line of propagation--that is, to _A_ _B_.

How can we form a physical conception of this phenomenon? There must be some physical explanation to it, for if it be an effect there must be a cause for its existence and production. Up to the present, however, no physical explanation has been forthcoming, so that for over 200 years a frictionless medium has failed to account for, or to explain, the transverse vibration of light as suggested by Fresnel.

If, therefore, by the hypothesis of an atomic and gravitative Aether, we succeed in accomplis.h.i.+ng a result that a frictionless Aether has failed to accomplish, then the explanation will be a most important factor in proving the atomicity and consequent gravitative property of the Aether.

Let us therefore revert to our hypothesis of the Aether as given in Art.

45. From that we learn, because Aether is atomic, it is also gravitative, and therefore forms around every atom and molecule, every satellite, planet, sun and star, an aetherial atmosphere--such aetherial atmosphere being doubtless proportionate to the ma.s.s of the atom or molecule or planet as the case may be, in accordance with the Law of Gravitation. We shall consider this view of the subject later on.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig: 5.]

Thus we learn that every particle of matter, and every body in the universe has its aetherial atmosphere so to speak, to which it is held bound by the universal Law of Gravitation. In the case of a satellite or planet or sun or star, that atmosphere will be more or less spherical in shape, decreasing in density as it recedes from the attracting body.

As we saw in the previous chapter, Tyndall stated that the waves of light really formed spherical sh.e.l.ls which surrounded the luminous body.

In the conception of an atomic and gravitating Aether we can form a physical conception of these aetherial sh.e.l.ls, which can be pictured as elastic envelopes, or rather series of envelopes surrounding each particle of matter, and also surrounding each satellite, planet, sun, and star; each envelope getting gradually less and less dense as the distance from the central body is increased.

Now we learn from experiments that the vibration is always in the wave front, but the wave front is coincident with the surface of each aetherial spherical sh.e.l.l, therefore the vibration must be in, and coincide with, the surfaces of the spherical sh.e.l.ls that are formed around every body in the universe.

We are now, however, dealing specially with one body which is the source of light, viz. the sun, and have therefore to picture the sun as being surrounded by these aetherial elastic envelopes, which gradually get less and less dense as they recede from it. What, therefore, will be the effect of the heat of that body as it is poured forth into s.p.a.ce? We have already learned (Art. 63) of the untold quant.i.ty of heat that is continually being poured forth into s.p.a.ce from the sun with its diameter of 856,000 miles, and its circ.u.mference of over 2-1/2 million miles.

What intense activity it must generate in the Aether near its surface!

and what must be the direct effect of that heat upon the aetherial elastic envelopes or sh.e.l.ls which surround it?

Perhaps the answer can be best ill.u.s.trated by a simple experiment. Let us take an ordinary toy balloon, with its elastic envelope, and fill it moderately full with air, and observe what the effect on it is when we put it near the fire. Gradually, as heat is imparted to the air in the balloon, the air which is also elastic expands, with the result that the envelope of the balloon is extended, and its size enlarged. Now withdraw it from the fire and note what happens.

As the air inside gets cold again, the elastic envelope of the balloon gradually shrinks, until it has been reduced to its former size. What has been taking place during this experiment with regard to the elastic envelope and the atoms thereof? May we not say that there has been a vibration or oscillation, among the particles which go to make up the elastic envelope, that forms the surface of the balloon? Certainly there has been some form of motion, and that motion took first the form of an expansion, and then contraction of the individual particles; and we have only to conceive of this process being repeated quickly and continuously, to form a mental picture of what takes place in any aetherial elastic envelope or sh.e.l.l that surrounds the sun.