Aether and Gravitation Part 7

_Liquid._--When matter is in a liquid condition, as, for example, water and oil, the condition of its molecules are not so fixed and stable as they are in the solid state. The molecules can move freely about one another, and their freedom is increased compared with their condition when in the solid state.

As already indicated, the reduction of a solid body to a liquid or molten state may be effected by heat. When heat is applied to a solid body, several results follow, each of which is the outcome of the other.

1. There is an increase of temperature which is due to the increased energy of the molecules, through the added heat.

2. There is an enlargement of the volume or size of the body, and if the addition of heat be continued, the molecular forces which hold the molecules together are broken down, and then the molecules, loosened from those forces which in the solid state have bound them together, begin to move about with greater freedom, and thus give rise to the molten condition of metals, or liquid condition of water. Thus, it is the heat which has set the atoms which compose the molecules in motion.

The atoms of the solid have absorbed the heat, and the heat which has thus been absorbed has imparted vibratory energy to the atoms, which they did not possess before. Now when a substance is in the liquid state, the atoms of that substance have not only a vibratory motion, but have also a translatory motion, so that they can move in and out among one another. This is proved by the phenomenon of diffusion, where we have the case of two different-coloured liquids, for example, intermingling with each other, which is conclusive evidence of the translatory motion of the atoms in liquids.

_Gaseous._--The third state in which matter is found is the gaseous state. In this condition, the particles of matter which form the gas have the greatest possible freedom of movement, and are able to move about with inconceivable velocity. There is abundant evidence to prove that gases consist of particles of matter which are perfectly free, and are able to fly about in all directions. The simplest proof is obtained by mixing two gases together, as, for example, when any gaseous substance is allowed to mix with the air of a room, when we find that the particular gas soon mixes itself thoroughly with all the air in the room. This process of mixing is known as Diffusion, and the lighter a gas is, the more quickly does it diffuse itself. The rate of movement of the various particles is varied, by reason of the encounters which each particle undergoes from time to time. Through experiments made by Joule, he arrived at the conclusion that particles of hydrogen attained a velocity of 6055 feet per second at 0 C., which is a velocity much greater than that of a cannon-ball. In spite of the enormous velocity with which a particle of hydrogen would move, there are such a large number of particles in a single cubic inch of s.p.a.ce, that no one particle has an absolutely free path from the one side of the enclosed s.p.a.ce to the other. To this constant movement of the individual particles is due the elasticity or pressure of gases. The outward pressure which they exert on any body which encloses the gas is caused by the total effect of the impact of the particles, and is proportional to the sum of their ma.s.ses multiplied into the square of their velocities. If we halve the enclosed s.p.a.ce, then we should double the number of impacts in a given time, so that the number of impacts is inversely as the volume of the gas. This is equivalent to the statement, that the pressure of a gas varies inversely as its volume, which is Boyle and Marriotte's Law.

ART. 37. _Matter is Gravitative._--If there is one property which is essentially characteristic to all matter, it is that all matter is gravitative. To this rule there is no exception, as the universal Law of Attraction states that "every particle of matter attracts every other particle." Thus, wherever in the whole universe there is a particle of matter of any kind or sort, whether such matter be solid, liquid, or gaseous, there the force of attraction will be exerted with a force proportionate to the ma.s.s of the particle, and inversely as the square of the distance between the attracted particles.

Gravitation, then, is a property which is essentially inherent in matter, and any substance which is termed matter, or fulfils the conditions that govern matter, must be gravitative, whatever other property it may, or may not, possess. Unless this be so, we should have a violation of the universal Law of Gravitation, which would cease at once to be a universal law, for instead of reading "every particle of matter attracts every other particle," we should have to say that "some particles of matter attract some other particles," which would be a violation of that universal law which, through the genius of Newton, has given to the universe an unity from the philosophical standpoint that it did not possess before.

Some matter may, or may not be elastic; it may, or may not be solid, or liquid, or gaseous; but there is this fact regarding matter which is absolutely undeniable, and that is, "All matter is gravitative."

That this is true of each and all kinds of matter has been proved by direct experiment times without number, and the constant application of the law to all forms of matter is a fact observable from the phenomena incidental to every-day life. Astronomical observation teaches us also, that all stars, suns, planets, satellites, and comets are subject to this great Law of Gravitation, as indeed they must be if they are composed of matter. That they are all composed of exactly similar elements of which the earth is composed, has been proved again and again by spectroscopic a.n.a.lysis, which teaches that hydrogen, iron, and calcium, etc., are to be found in distant stars and nebulae, as they are equally to be found in the composition of the earth. Thus throughout the wide universe so far as observation and experiment can teach us, we learn that without any exception, everything that is termed matter is subject to this universal Law of Gravitation.

ART. 38. _Matter possesses Density._--Density is that property of matter which decides the weight of a body per unit of volume.

The density of any substance may be shown in several ways. It may denote, first of all, the number of molecules in a given body. Let us take as an ill.u.s.tration, the case of air being forced into a vessel of a given size, say one cubic foot capacity. We will suppose that in such a vessel there are 1,000,000 molecules. If we pump in a quant.i.ty of air equal to the amount it contained at first, then it is obvious that we have doubled the number of molecules in the same vessel, and therefore we say we have doubled the density. Not only so, but the weight of the air in the vessel will have been doubled. Looked at from this standpoint, density means the number of molecules in unit volume such as a cubic inch, or cubic centimetre.

Again, as has already been shown in Art. 35, the different elements have different atomic weights. Thus an atom of carbon weighs twelve times as much as an atom of hydrogen, that is to say, there are twelve times as much matter by weight in an atom of carbon as there is in an atom of hydrogen, so that it would take twelve times as many hydrogen atoms to weigh a pound as compared with the number of atoms of carbon. This is only another way of stating that carbon has twelve times the density of hydrogen. If we compare lead and silver with hydrogen in the same way, we find that the density is 206 times and 107 times greater than that of hydrogen.

Thus, it may be seen, that all matter possesses density, and that that density depends partly upon its atomic const.i.tution. If the molecule of matter is composed of atoms whose atomic weights are very large compared with that of hydrogen, as iron, silver, lead and gold, then the molecules will have a much greater density, than a molecule formed of oxygen and hydrogen, _i. e._ water. This property of the density of matter plays a most important part in the transmission of any kind of wave-motion.

ART. 39. _Matter possesses Elasticity._--Matter possesses elasticity.

Elasticity is that property of matter which enables all bodies to resume their original shape, when the pressure which has caused the alteration of shape has been removed.

For example, suppose an ivory ball be dropped upon a marble table, or any other hard surface. It will then rebound, and rise almost to the same height from which it was dropped. If the surface upon which it fell was first covered with blacklead, a circular spot of lead will be found on the ivory ball. From this fact, we arrive at the conclusion that when the ball came into contact with the table, at the moment of contact it was flattened, and then owing to its elasticity it rebounded into the air again.

Now the measure of the elasticity of a body is proportionate to the velocity of the wave-motion which it can transmit. A good ill.u.s.tration of the transmission of wave-motion may be shown with a number of ivory bagatelle or billiard b.a.l.l.s. If eight or more of these be put in a row, all touching each other, and a single ball be placed about an inch or so away from the others in a straight line with them, then when the single ball is struck with a cue against the other eight, the motion of the single ball is transmitted by each one of the eight successively with such rapidity, that the end ball would be set in motion in a quicker time than a single ball would take to reach the end ball, if it had been free to move along without encountering any opposition.

It is a fact capable of demonstration, that the smaller the particle of matter, the greater will be its vibratory motion. Thus the particles of air are very, very small, and consequently air is found to be very elastic, and allows sound to be transmitted through it with comparatively great velocity, some sounds travelling at the rate of over 1000 feet per second.

A most important factor in determining the propagation of any wave-motion, through a gas or solid, is the relations.h.i.+p of the elasticity of the gas or solid to its density. Suffice to say, that the velocity of any wave-motion is determined by the relation of the elasticity to the density. For example, sound, which is a wave-motion of the air, can not only be transmitted through gaseous bodies as air, but also through liquids and solids. Sound travels faster through solids than through liquids, and faster through liquids than through gases. In liquids, the relation of the elasticity to density is greater than in air, and in solids the relation is greater still. Therefore sound travels much faster in liquids than in gases, and faster in solids than in liquids.

This is the reason why a train can be heard coming if the ear is put to the railway-line, when no indication of its approach is given to the ear by the atmosphere. Some examples of the velocities of sound through different substances are as follows--

Gases O. C. Liquids. Solids.

FEET FEET FEET

Air 1090 per sec. Water 4708 per sec. (8 C.). Gold 5717 per sec.

Oxygen 1040 " " Alcohol 4218 " " (20 C.). Silver 8553 " "

ART. 40. _Matter possesses Inertia._--Inertia is that property of matter, by which matter cannot of itself alter, or change its state of motion, or of rest.

Newton's first law of motion states that a body at rest remains at rest until some force or motion acts upon it. If a stone be dropped from a balloon, the stone does not fall because of any property which it possesses, but because the force of gravity acts upon it. If it were possible to eliminate this force of gravity, then if there were no other force which could act upon the stone, it would remain suspended in s.p.a.ce.

The inertia of a body is equal to the ma.s.s of that body, or the amount of matter in the body as measured by gravity, so that if a body is halved, its inertia will be halved also, and if doubled, its inertia will be doubled also. As the inertia of matter opposes all kinds of motion, the amount of force required to overcome the inertia of a body is proportionate to its ma.s.s. So that if the ma.s.s of a body is doubled, then twice the force would be required to move it, while if the body were halved, half the force would suffice to do it.

Inertia is possessed quite as much by a moving body as a body at rest.

The definition given points this out, as it states that matter cannot of itself change its state of motion. If a body therefore is in motion, it requires a certain amount of resistance to bring the body to a state of rest, or the loss of an equal amount of energy, by friction or otherwise, equal to the quant.i.ty which it absorbed in order for it to be set in motion.

We get numerous examples of this property of the inertia of bodies in our daily experience. Many of the accidents that befall people in various ways are due to this property of the inertia of matter. A cyclist is riding a machine down-hill, and loses control over his machine, with the result that he runs into a wall, and is killed. Now what has happened? The cyclist has partic.i.p.ated in the motion of the machine, with the result that when the machine has been suddenly stopped, the body has been thrown forward owing to the momentum it had acquired.

We are constantly being affected by the property of inertia of matter, in tram and train and bus. Whenever any of these are suddenly stopped, or suddenly started, we are thrown either backward or forward, owing to the body either not having acquired the motion of the train, or, having acquired it, is unable to lose its motion as quickly as the train, and is therefore thrown forward.

CHAPTER IV

AETHER IS MATTER

ART. 42. _Aether is Matter._--The hypothesis of an Aether which fills all s.p.a.ce was made in order that scientists might be able to account for certain phenomena of Light, which otherwise were difficult to account for. Its existence is demanded not only for the phenomena of Light, and Heat, but, in view of the comparatively recent researches of Hertz on "Electric Waves," of Electricity also.

The Aetherial Medium is generally a.s.sumed to be that fundamental medium, by means of which possibly all the properties of matter, and all the phenomena of motion of the universe are to be explained. Light and Heat have been proved to be due to the periodic wave-motion of this universal Aether, while from the investigations and researches of such men as Clerk Maxwell, Poynting, Thompson and Hertz, it has been proved that electro-magnetic phenomena are due to this same medium.

Several different forms of Aether have been postulated by various philosophers from time to time, but the only Aether that has survived, is that which was first conceived by Huyghens to explain the phenomena of Light, though it was Thomas Young who finally succeeded in placing the conception of the Aether on a sound basis. Each discovery of science has only strengthened the hypothesis and existence of the Aether, the latest discovery, that of wireless telegraphy so successfully developed by Signor Marconi, being attributed to the electro-magnetic properties of this self-same Aether.

It has already been pointed out that Newton endeavoured to account for Gravitation by the pressure of the Aether. If, therefore, Gravitation be really due to this universal medium it becomes necessary to ask ourselves, What are the properties and characteristic qualities of this wonderful medium? What then is Aether, and what its properties?

It has already been pointed out in Art. 29 that Aether is matter. Such an a.s.sumption is strictly in accordance with the Rules of Philosophy, quoted in Chap. I.

Not only is this hypothesis a simple one, but it is also in accord with all our experience and observation.

It is a simple supposition, because, unless Aether is a.s.sumed to be matter, then, instead of the universe being composed of two cla.s.ses of things, matter and motion, we have to add a third cla.s.s, which we call Aether. It can be readily seen, that by the introduction of a third cla.s.s into the composition of the universe, such an addition, instead of simplifying the const.i.tution of the universe, adds greater complexity to the same.

By accepting the hypothesis that Aether is matter, we do away with the third cla.s.s of essentials in the universe, and so reduce the number to two cla.s.ses. If we could go one step further, and prove that instead of there being two cla.s.ses of things in the universe, there was only one group, and show that all material things, and all phenomena could come under the head of either matter, or motion, then we should have reduced the universe to the simplest conception possible. As, however, it is not possible, at least in our present state of knowledge, for us to come to this fundamental and simple hypothesis of unity for the entire universe, we must accept the next simpler solution, and affirm that the universe is composed of two cla.s.ses of things, viz. matter and motion, and this as I have already shown is a simpler cla.s.sification than by putting Aether into a cla.s.s by itself, and therefore is in accord with our first Rule of Philosophy.

Again, it is entirely in accord with our second Rule of Philosophy, as it in no way violates the results of experiment, experience, or observation. Look where we will, or at what we will, whatever we see, touch, taste, or smell is termed matter. The burning sun, the glowing star, the flying meteor, the glowing comet, the earth, our own island home, the towering rock, the wide ocean, the running river, the green trees of the forest, the tiny insect, the lordly elephant, all animals, plants, and our own physical body, all are composed of matter, either in solid, liquid or gaseous form. Therefore when we affirm that Aether is matter, the affirmation is strictly in accordance with the elementary principles of Philosophy, and in no way violates their rules or laws. To affirm that Aether is not matter, is to affirm something contrary to all experience, unless it be affirmed that Aether is motion, for which a.s.sumption the evidence is not nearly so strong or conclusive as that it is matter. Therefore the objector to this a.s.sumption is himself unphilosophical, in that he postulates or supposes that the Aether is a medium, with qualities which lie altogether outside the range of our experience and observation.

There is a growing conviction in the minds of scientific men, that Aether belongs to that group of things which we describe by the term matter. Lord Kelvin in giving an address to the British a.s.sociation, 1901, on "Cl.u.s.tering of Gravitational Matter in any part of the Universe," said: "We are all convinced with our President (Professor Rucker) that _Aether is Matter_. Aether we relegate to a distinct species of matter which has inertia, rigidity, elasticity, compressibility, but not heaviness."

Dr. Larmor in _Aether and Matter_ writes: "Matter must be const.i.tuted of isolated portions, each of which is of necessity a permanent nucleus belonging to the Aether, of some such type as is represented for example by a minute vortex ring in a perfect fluid."

Faraday in relation to this subject writes (_Exp. Res._, vol. ii.): "The view now stated of the composition of matter would seem to involve the conclusion that matter fills all s.p.a.ce, or at least all s.p.a.ce to which Gravitation extends, _including the sun and its system_, for Gravitation is a property of matter dependable on a certain Force, and it is this Force which const.i.tutes matter." As the Aether fills all s.p.a.ce, including the solar system, therefore, according to Faraday, "Aether must also be Matter."

By the hypothesis that Aether is matter, with all the properties that such a hypothesis logically gives to Aether, I venture to premise that the third Rule of Philosophy will be fulfilled, and that there is no phenomenon of the astronomical world, and no part of the universal Law of Gravitation which such a hypothesis will fail to account for on a satisfactory physical basis. For the first time a physical explanation will be given to Newton's Laws of Motion, at least to those laws which are strictly in accordance with the first and second Rules of Philosophy. For the first time a physical conception will be given to all Kepler's Laws, and what the mathematical Laws of Gravitation have done to Kepler's Laws, in giving them a mathematical basis, the simple hypothesis that Aether is matter, with all that is logically involved therein, will do for the same laws from the physical standpoint. For the first time a physical conception will be given to the Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces, which are the complement and the counterpart of each other, that physical conception being the outcome of the same hypothesis that Aether is matter.

In addition to this, light is thrown upon such problems as are referred to by Lord Kelvin (_Phil. Mag._, July 1902) in his paper on "Clouds on the Undulatory Theory of Light," and further light is given to some theories of Electricity advanced by such men as Faraday, Clerk Maxwell, and Professor Thompson. I venture to think, therefore, that the hypothesis advanced, and the conception put forward that Aether is matter, is philosophically correct, and is warranted by the results that arise out of such a hypothesis.

It may be thought by some that the hypothesis that I have advanced is already conceded, and that the fact that Aether is matter is already admitted by scientists and advanced thinkers generally. But such an idea is only partly correct. It is already admitted by some of our most advanced scientists that Aether is matter, but that admission is only carried partially to its logical conclusion.