The Foundations of Science: Science and Hypothesis, The Value of Science Science and Method Part 17

Would it not be simpler to consider the law of acceleration as a definition in all cases, and to regard the experiments in question, not as verifications of this law, but as verifications of the principle of reaction, or as demonstrating that the deformations of an elastic body depend only on the forces to which this body is subjected?

And this is without taking into account that the conditions under which your definition could be accepted are never fulfilled except imperfectly, that a thread is never without ma.s.s, that it is never removed from every force except the reaction of the bodies attached to its extremities.

Andrade's ideas are nevertheless very interesting; if they do not satisfy our logical craving, they make us understand better the historic genesis of the fundamental ideas of mechanics. The reflections they suggest show us how the human mind has raised itself from a nave anthropomorphism to the present conceptions of science.

We see at the start a very particular and in sum rather crude experiment; at the finish, a law perfectly general, perfectly precise, the certainty of which we regard as absolute. This certainty we ourselves have bestowed upon it voluntarily, so to speak, by looking upon it as a convention.

Are the law of acceleration, the rule of the composition of forces then only arbitrary conventions? Conventions, yes; arbitrary, no; they would be if we lost sight of the experiments which led the creators of the science to adopt them, and which, imperfect as they may be, suffice to justify them. It is well that from time to time our attention is carried back to the experimental origin of these conventions.

CHAPTER VII

RELATIVE MOTION AND ABSOLUTE MOTION

THE PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVE MOTION.--The attempt has sometimes been made to attach the law of acceleration to a more general principle. The motion of any system must obey the same laws, whether it be referred to fixed axes, or to movable axes carried along in a rectilinear and uniform motion. This is the principle of relative motion, which forces itself upon us for two reasons: first, the commonest experience confirms it, and second, the contrary hypothesis is singularly repugnant to the mind.

a.s.sume it then, and consider a body subjected to a force; the relative motion of this body, in reference to an observer moving with a uniform velocity equal to the initial velocity of the body, must be identical to what its absolute motion would be if it started from rest. We conclude hence that its acceleration can not depend upon its absolute velocity; the attempt has even been made to derive from this a demonstration of the law of acceleration.

There long were traces of this demonstration in the regulations for the degree B. es Sc. It is evident that this attempt is idle. The obstacle which prevented our demonstrating the law of acceleration is that we had no definition of force; this obstacle subsists in its entirety, since the principle invoked has not furnished us the definition we lacked.

The principle of relative motion is none the less highly interesting and deserves study for its own sake. Let us first try to enunciate it in a precise manner.

We have said above that the accelerations of the different bodies forming part of an isolated system depend only on their relative velocities and positions, and not on their absolute velocities and positions, provided the movable axes to which the relative motion is referred move uniformly in a straight line. Or, if we prefer, their accelerations depend only on the differences of their velocities and the differences of their coordinates, and not on the absolute values of these velocities and coordinates.

If this principle is true for relative accelerations, or rather for differences of acceleration, in combining it with the law of reaction we shall thence deduce that it is still true of absolute accelerations.

It then remains to be seen how we may demonstrate that the differences of the accelerations depend only on the differences of the velocities and of the coordinates, or, to speak in mathematical language, that these differences of coordinates satisfy differential equations of the second order.

Can this demonstration be deduced from experiments or from _a priori_ considerations?

Recalling what we have said above, the reader can answer for himself.

Thus enunciated, in fact, the principle of relative motion singularly resembles what I called above the generalized principle of inertia; it is not altogether the same thing, since it is a question of the differences of coordinates and not of the coordinates themselves. The new principle teaches us therefore something more than the old, but the same discussion is applicable and would lead to the same conclusions; it is unnecessary to return to it.

NEWTON'S ARGUMENT.--Here we encounter a very important and even somewhat disconcerting question. I have said the principle of relative motion was for us not solely a result of experiment and that _a priori_ every contrary hypothesis would be repugnant to the mind.

But then, why is the principle true only if the motion of the movable axes is rectilinear and uniform? It seems that it ought to impose itself upon us with the same force, if this motion is varied, or at any rate if it reduces to a uniform rotation. Now, in these two cases, the principle is not true. I will not dwell long on the case where the motion of the axes is rectilinear without being uniform; the paradox does not bear a moment's examination. If I am on board, and if the train, striking any obstacle, stops suddenly, I shall be thrown against the seat in front of me, although I have not been directly subjected to any force. There is nothing mysterious in that; if I have undergone the action of no external force, the train itself has experienced an external impact.

There can be nothing paradoxical in the relative motion of two bodies being disturbed when the motion of one or the other is modified by an external cause.

I will pause longer on the case of relative motions referred to axes which rotate uniformly. If the heavens were always covered with clouds, if we had no means of observing the stars, we nevertheless might conclude that the earth turns round; we could learn this from its flattening or again by the Foucault pendulum experiment.

And yet, in this case, would it have any meaning, to say the earth turns round? If there is no absolute s.p.a.ce, can one turn without turning in reference to something else? and, on the other hand, how could we admit Newton's conclusion and believe in absolute s.p.a.ce?

But it does not suffice to ascertain that all possible solutions are equally repugnant to us; we must a.n.a.lyze, in each case, the reasons for our repugnance, so as to make our choice intelligently. The long discussion which follows will therefore be excused.

Let us resume our fiction: thick clouds hide the stars from men, who can not observe them and are ignorant even of their existence; how shall these men know the earth turns round?

Even more than our ancestors, no doubt, they will regard the ground which bears them as fixed and immovable; they will await much longer the advent of a Copernicus. But in the end the Copernicus would come--how?

The students of mechanics in this world would not at first be confronted with an absolute contradiction. In the theory of relative motion, besides real forces, two fict.i.tious forces are met which are called ordinary and compound centrifugal force. Our imaginary scientists could therefore explain everything by regarding these two forces as real, and they would not see therein any contradiction of the generalized principle of inertia, for these forces would depend, the one on the relative positions of the various parts of the system, as real attractions do, the other on their relative velocities, as real frictions do.

Many difficulties, however, would soon awaken their attention; if they succeeded in realizing an isolated system, the center of gravity of this system would not have an almost rectilinear path. They would invoke, to explain this fact, the centrifugal forces which they would regard as real, and which they would attribute no doubt to the mutual actions of the bodies. Only they would not see these forces become null at great distances, that is to say in proportion as the isolation was better realized; far from it; centrifugal force increases indefinitely with the distance.

This difficulty would seem to them already sufficiently great; and yet it would not stop them long; they would soon imagine some very subtile medium, a.n.a.logous to our ether, in which all bodies would be immersed and which would exert a repellent action upon them.

But this is not all. s.p.a.ce is symmetric, and yet the laws of motion would not show any symmetry; they would have to distinguish between right and left. It would be seen for instance that cyclones turn always in the same sense, whereas by reason of symmetry these winds should turn indifferently in one sense and in the other. If our scientists by their labor had succeeded in rendering their universe perfectly symmetric, this symmetry would not remain, even though there was no apparent reason why it should be disturbed in one sense rather than in the other.

They would get themselves out of the difficulty doubtless, they would invent something which would be no more extraordinary than the gla.s.s spheres of Ptolemy, and so it would go on, complications acc.u.mulating, until the long-expected Copernicus sweeps them all away at a single stroke, saying: It is much simpler to a.s.sume the earth turns round.

And just as our Copernicus said to us: It is more convenient to suppose the earth turns round, since thus the laws of astronomy are expressible in a much simpler language; this one would say: It is more convenient to suppose the earth turns round, since thus the laws of mechanics are expressible in a much simpler language.

This does not preclude maintaining that absolute s.p.a.ce, that is to say the mark to which it would be necessary to refer the earth to know whether it really moves, has no objective existence. Hence, this affirmation: 'the earth turns round' has no meaning, since it can be verified by no experiment; since such an experiment, not only could not be either realized or dreamed by the boldest Jules Verne, but can not be conceived of without contradiction; or rather these two propositions: 'the earth turns round,' and, 'it is more convenient to suppose the earth turns round' have the same meaning; there is nothing more in the one than in the other.

Perhaps one will not be content even with that, and will find it already shocking that among all the hypotheses, or rather all the conventions we can make on this subject, there is one more convenient than the others.

But if it has been admitted without difficulty when it was a question of the laws of astronomy, why should it be shocking in that which concerns mechanics?

We have seen that the coordinates of bodies are determined by differential equations of the second order, and that so are the differences of these coordinates. This is what we have called the generalized principle of inertia and the principle of relative motion.

If the distances of these bodies were determined likewise by equations of the second order, it seems that the mind ought to be entirely satisfied. In what measure does the mind get this satisfaction and why is it not content with it?

To account for this, we had better take a simple example. I suppose a system a.n.a.logous to our solar system, but where one can not perceive fixed stars foreign to this system, so that astronomers can observe only the mutual distances of the planets and the sun, and not the absolute longitudes of the planets. If we deduce directly from Newton's law the differential equations which define the variation of these distances, these equations will not be of the second order. I mean that if, besides Newton's law, one knew the initial values of these distances and of their derivatives with respect to the time, that would not suffice to determine the values of these same distances at a subsequent instant.

There would still be lacking one datum, and this datum might be for instance what astronomers call the area-constant.

But here two different points of view may be taken; we may distinguish two sorts of constants. To the eyes of the physicist the world reduces to a series of phenomena, depending, on the one hand, solely upon the initial phenomena; on the other hand, upon the laws which bind the consequents to the antecedents. If then observation teaches us that a certain quant.i.ty is a constant, we shall have the choice between two conceptions.

Either we shall a.s.sume that there is a law requiring this quant.i.ty not to vary, but that by chance, at the beginning of the ages, it had, rather than another, this value it has been forced to keep ever since.

This quant.i.ty might then be called an _accidental_ constant.

Or else we shall a.s.sume, on the contrary, that there is a law of nature which imposes upon this quant.i.ty such a value and not such another.

We shall then have what we may call an _essential_ constant.

For example, in virtue of Newton's laws, the duration of the revolution of the earth must be constant. But if it is 366 sidereal days and something over, and not 300 or 400, this is in consequence of I know not what initial chance. This is an accidental constant. If, on the contrary, the exponent of the distance which figures in the expression of the attractive force is equal to -2 and not to -3, this is not by chance, but because Newton's law requires it. This is an essential constant.

I know not whether this way of giving chance its part is legitimate in itself, and whether this distinction is not somewhat artificial; it is certain at least that, so long as nature shall have secrets, this distinction will be in application extremely arbitrary and always precarious.

As to the area-constant, we are accustomed to regard it as accidental.

Is it certain our imaginary astronomers would do the same? If they could have compared two different solar systems, they would have the idea that this constant may have several different values; but my very supposition in the beginning was that their system should appear as isolated, and that they should observe no star foreign to it. Under these conditions, they would see only one single constant which would have a single value absolutely invariable; they would be led without any doubt to regard it as an essential constant.

A word in pa.s.sing to forestall an objection: the inhabitants of this imaginary world could neither observe nor define the area-constant as we do, since the absolute longitudes escape them; that would not preclude their being quickly led to notice a certain constant which would introduce itself naturally into their equations and which would be nothing but what we call the area-constant.

But then see what would happen. If the area-constant is regarded as essential, as depending upon a law of nature, to calculate the distances of the planets at any instant it will suffice to know the initial values of these distances and those of their first derivatives. From this new point of view, the distances will be determined by differential equations of the second order.

Yet would the mind of these astronomers be completely satisfied? I do not believe so; first, they would soon perceive that in differentiating their equations and thus raising their order, these equations became much simpler. And above all they would be struck by the difficulty which comes from symmetry. It would be necessary to a.s.sume different laws, according as the aggregate of the planets presented the figure of a certain polyhedron or of the symmetric polyhedron, and one would escape from this consequence only by regarding the area-constant as accidental.

I have taken a very special example, since I have supposed astronomers who did not at all consider terrestrial mechanics, and whose view was limited to the solar system. Our universe is more extended than theirs, as we have fixed stars, but still it too is limited, and so we might reason on the totality of our universe as the astronomers on their solar system.