Oriental Rugs Part 4

Among all primitive races the sun, moon, and stars have been a.s.sociated with their religion, so that it is surprising that so few emblems of them are recognised in rugs. In the theology of the Chaldees, from which the earliest weavers must have received inspiration, the sun was regarded as one of their princ.i.p.al deities and the moon as another. The sun is generally represented by a plain circle, a circle with diameters intersecting at right angles, or a circle with small ovals intersecting at right angles; the moon is represented by the crescent. Of much more frequent occurrence is the eight-pointed star, another inheritance of those ancient times when all primitive races wors.h.i.+pped the heavenly bodies. It represented the female principle of the Chaldean sun G.o.d; and it is believed, too, that it represented the deity to the Medes, ancestors of many of the present Persians. There is a tradition among some Eastern races that King Solomon wore a ring of diamonds arranged in the form of an eight-pointed star, and also a crown containing a large star of which the eight points and centre were composed of precious stones of different colour. A star now and then seen in rugs with colours so arranged is known as "Mohammedan's jewel design." The six-pointed star, a Jewish symbol for the "s.h.i.+eld of David," was adopted as a talisman by some of the Moslems. All of these stars are chiefly nomadic symbols, they rarely if ever are seen in the rugs of China or India, they are only occasionally found in those of Persia, and are of most frequent occurrence in the Caucasian pieces.

Another design is an octagonal-shaped disc (Plate O, Fig. 10, Page 291), usually about two and a half inches in diameter, on the face of which and extending the full width are figures somewhat like hour-gla.s.ses placed at right angles to one another. It seems not improbable that it is of the same origin as the large designs that appear in the field of the Holbein rug of the XV Century, ill.u.s.trated in Plate 21 (opp. Page 92). It is a very old motive, and is sometimes regarded as a dial symbolising the diurnal motion of the earth. It is of very frequent occurrence in nomadic rugs; and is found in Beluchistans, in nearly all Caucasians, in some rugs from Asia Minor, and in only a very few from Persia.

The zigzag line, known as the water motive, is found in many of the rugs of China, India, Persia, Caucasia, and Asia Minor, as well as in the Beluchistans and Bes.h.i.+res of the Central Asiatic group, though in some instances it appears as little more than a serrated line. It is represented in the narrow guard-stripes of some of the Western Asia Minor carpets of the XV Century. According to Mr. John Mumford, "even in the oldest Egyptian symbolism a zigzag line stood for water and by implication for eternity; and a succession of these arranged to represent the sea has long been a recognised carpet design in India, China, and Persia."

[Ill.u.s.tration: _COLOUR PLATE III-MOSUL RUG_

_Long before the commercial instinct had been felt among the weavers of the Orient, one or more of them dwelling in the Mesopotamian valley tied the knots of this old Mosul. The central field is of camel's hair that shades from a rich dark chestnut at one end to lighter tones at the other, and is enlivened by bright flowers representing those found on the river's banks. This variation of ground colour, the small geometric designs at the extreme ends of the fields, the eight-pointed stars of the main stripe of the border, and some of the drawing are nomadic characteristics. The dainty vine and flower of the narrow guard stripes, on the other hand, show Persian influence. This piece represents a type of which few now remain._

_Property of the Author_]

One of the most common designs is what has been called the "latch-hook."

When there is a long succession of latch-hooks with the straight ends resting on a line and the hooked ends inclined in the same direction, as in Plate K, Fig. 20 (opp. Page 230), they are called "running latch-hooks." Since they appear in the Dragon and Phnix rug (opp.

Page 88), that was probably woven about the end of the XIV Century, they are evidently a very old design, which not improbably was derived from the Chinese fret. The hook is of different shapes, and is sometimes perpendicular, sometimes inclined. Its particular function is to shade or subdue the harsh effect of a sudden transition from one colour to another that is entirely different. As such a device is unnecessary in artistic rugs of intricate designs, it is rarely seen in any Indian or Persian piece, excepting the modern s.h.i.+raz that frequently adopts geometric patterns; but it is found in all the rugs of Caucasia, Central Asia, and in most of those of Asia Minor. It is in fact as universal as the reciprocal trefoil.

In rugs of geometric patterns are occasionally found both Greek and Roman crosses. The latter are represented in most of the Soumak rugs, and appear profusely in old Asia Minor or Armenian rugs, in which they were probably woven with the intent to convey a religious significance; but in many instances crosses are not used symbolically.

The design of a comb (Plate O, Fig. 11, Page 291) is a Mohammedan emblem suggestive of cleanliness, yet it is not improbable that it is sometimes intended to represent the instrument employed in pressing the threads of weft closely against the knots. It is found mostly in Caucasian rugs, and rarely in those of other groups.

In a large number of the finest carpets woven in Persia three or four centuries ago was represented what is known as the Chinese cloud-band (Plate O, Fig. 7). It appeared in Persia about the middle of the XV Century, and was conspicuous in the carpets of Herat, Tabriz, and Gilan, as well as in many of the "Polish Carpets." Later it was introduced into Asia Minor, but was never represented in any of the strictly nomadic weavings. It appears in only a very few of the modern rugs, and these are mostly Persian. Nor is it recognised in its usual form in any of the Chinese rugs that now exist; though without a doubt it originated with the Chinese, since their early mythology placed the abode of the Supreme Ruler in the Constellation of Ursa Major, of which the stars of the Big Dipper were represented in early art as enveloped in a band of clouds; but in more conventionalised ornamentation the stars are omitted and the band remains. As a motive, then, it is symbolic of heaven and the deity.

In almost all rugs are found expressions of vegetable life, as a twig, vine, flower, or tree. Sometimes they are most naturalistic, again they are partly conventionalised, or so disguised, as in nomadic rugs of geometric designs, that only by study and comparison of many forms in a series can their origin be established. This universal adoption of floral form was due to something more than an aesthetic love for the beautiful, since in every country of the East some part of the tree or plant was emblematic. Moreover, a tree form known as the Tree of Life had a religious significance among many races. The Jews were told that in the Garden of Eden grew the "Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil;" and in the Book of Revelation the Apostle John speaks of "The Tree of Life which bore twelve manner of fruits and yielded her fruit every month, and the leaves of the tree were for the healing of the nations." From this pa.s.sage may have been borrowed the belief of the Mohammedans in the Tree of Life which grew in Paradise, and spread its branches that true believers might rest beneath them and enjoy its fruits and the companions.h.i.+p of beautiful houri. In the ancient lore of China is the Taoist tradition of the Tree of Life, growing by the Sea of Jade, that confers immortality on the fortunate who may gather and eat its fruits; also the tradition of the mountain top where grows the sacred tree on which the elect may climb and mount to heaven. Even among the ancient Chaldees was a story of a tree that grew to heaven and sheltered the earth. In different countries the Tree of Life is represented by different kinds; in Yarkand of Eastern Turkestan it takes the form of a cedar; in Persia it is generally the cypress. Wherever employed it is symbolic of knowledge, resurrection, immortality.

[Ill.u.s.tration: PLATE 12. CARPET FROM NORTHWESTERN PERSIA

Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York]

No other form of vegetable life was so universally employed in Oriental symbolism as the lotus flower (Plate O, Figs. 16-a, b, and c), since the Egyptian, a.s.syrian, Indian, Chinese, and Persian alike did it reverence.

It was, perhaps, first employed emblematically in the valley of the Nile, but later it was held in high esteem by the inhabitants of India where the floating blossom is regarded as an emblem of the world. It was inseparately a.s.sociated with Buddha, and its religious significance must have extended with the spread of Buddhism. Professor Goodyear regards a large number of designs that apparently are not related in form as derived from it through a long series of evolutions. During the highest development of the textile art in Persia it appears most realistically drawn in a large number of the carpets, especially the so-called Ispahans, or Herats, and the so-called Polish. It is also most artistically represented in the fabrics of India, and is a favourite design for Chinese weavers. But in other modern rugs it is seldom used as a motive, and is so conventionalised as often to escape notice.

If the lotus was the first flower to be represented in early woven fabrics, as seems not improbable, several others have met with greater favour among modern weavers. Of these the rose, which is cultivated extensively in the gardens of the East, appears in a large number of the rugs of Persia and Asia Minor. Moreover, a pattern frequently seen in many old Persian rugs is an all-over pattern of small bushes with flowering roses. Almost equally popular is the lily, which is characteristic of many of the rugs of India and of a few of Western Asia Minor. The "Euphrates flower," which grows by the river banks of the Mesopotamian valley, is also occasionally found as an all-over pattern in some of the rugs of Western Iran and Southern Caucasia. Less frequently seen and still less frequently recognised, as they are generally woven in small figures, are the daisy, anemone, crocus, narcissus, pink, and violet. All are depicted chiefly on account of their a.s.sociations and beauty, and whatever emblematic meaning they are intended to convey is generally no more than that of their colours.

There are, however, in a few old Persian carpets designs of sunflowers, which were accepted by the Zoroastrians and the earlier sun and fire wors.h.i.+ppers as symbols of the sun and emblems of light.

Of the fruits of the earth none is more highly esteemed than the pomegranate, which was sculptured in temples of Mesopotamia and embroidered on the robes of a.s.syrian and Jewish priests. In the days of King Solomon it was cultivated in Palestine, where the Israelites, like modern Persians, made a sherbet by mixing its juice with sugar and spices. At the time of Homer it was cultivated in Phrygia. Now it grows wild over vast tracts of Syria, Persia, and Asia Minor. Yet it rarely appears conspicuously in any woven fabrics excepting the Ladik prayer rugs, in which it is invariably seen. Since the weavers of these, whether Christian or Moslem, would probably be familiar with many of the old Jewish and a.s.syrian rites, it is not unlikely that it refers emblematically to its religious a.s.sociations rather than symbolises, as has been suggested, the idea of fruitfulness as expressed in the Turkish wedding custom where the bride throws a pomegranate at her feet that the scattered seed may fore-tell the number of her children.

In almost every rug of Persia, India, and Asia Minor there is in some part of the border a vine with pendant leaves, flowers, rosettes, or palmettes; and even in many Caucasian rugs of geometric pattern the vine with its appendages is seen in conventionalised form. In a few of the more sumptuous carpets, where the drawing is elaborate, delicate tendrils bearing flowers or the more formal designs of the Herati border take the place of the vine, from which they were evolved. In such borders the designs generally convey no symbolic meaning, but the simpler vine encircling the field without beginning or end represents symbolically the continuity of purpose and permanency.

One of the most interesting designs (Plate O, Fig. 6, Page 291) is known as the Cone, Palm, Mango, Almond, River Loop, and Pear. By some it is believed to represent no more than the closed palm of the hand, since there is an old tradition in Persia that a weaver once asked his little son to devise for him a new design, whereupon the boy thrust his hand into a pot of dye, then placed it sidewise upon a piece of white linen, on which became impressed the "palm" design formed by the hand and incurving small finger. By some it is regarded as a cl.u.s.ter of old Iranian crown jewels. To others, who point to the well-known pattern of the Kashmir weaving, it denotes the bend of the river Jhelum above Srinagar in the valley of Kashmir; and to Sir George Birdwood it symbolises the flame sacred to ancient fire wors.h.i.+ppers. In this work it will be called the Pear, the name now generally applied to it. In the course of the many centuries that have elapsed since its origin, and in its migration through India, Persia, Turkestan, Caucasia, and Asia Minor, it has adopted more strange shapes than any other device. In the rugs of Sarabend it is represented in its best-known form of simple curving lines, in the Bakus its ident.i.ty is almost lost on account of its geometric appearance, and in the fabrics of India it is often very ornate. Though its origin is hidden in the mists of the past, when its antiquity is considered, and also the devotion of the early races to the glowing orb of the sun and to terrestrial fires, it is not surprising that it has been regarded as a relic of the Zoroastrian faith of old Iran, symbolising the eternal flames before which the Pa.r.s.ees wors.h.i.+pped.

[Ill.u.s.tration: PLATE 13. COMPARTMENT CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]

If the floral designs are more beautiful, others are more truly symbolic, and when appearing in rugs of barbaric patterns they are more interesting. Of these the creeping things are represented by the serpent, scorpion, turtle, crab, and tarantula. Among a few races of Asia the serpent, which is found in a few old Persian carpets, has been regarded as emblematic of immortality, but has been more frequently considered as the symbol of knowledge. The scorpion, also, was supposed to represent the idea of knowledge. It does not often appear in woven design, but is sometimes drawn with careful precision in Caucasian fabrics. The turtle or tortoise stands for constancy. What is called the "turtle border" (Plate E, Fig. 3, opp. Page 156), which was probably derived from interlacing arabesques, occurs most frequently in Feraghans and also in some other Persian rugs, as Muskabads, Sarabends, Serapis, and even the Sehnas. The tarantula and crab designs are found exclusively in borders of Caucasian rugs. As their resemblance to the animals they are supposed to represent is remote, it is most probable that they are simply the conventionalised forms of the star and palmette.

Among the designs seen in Chinese rugs are several not found in any others. Of these the dragon, originally intended as a symbol of the infinite, denotes imperial power; the stork, long life; the duck, conjugal felicity; the bat, happiness; and the b.u.t.terfly, a spirit.

These designs will be noticed in the chapter on Chinese rugs.

With few exceptions the only modern rugs in which birds are represented are the Persian. The drawing as a rule is far from natural; but in the fine old carpets it is often so accurate as to show unmistakably the order to which they belong. Several of them were used symbolically, as the bird of paradise, suggestive of felicity; the peac.o.c.k, symbol of fire; the eagle, emblem of power. The att.i.tude, to be sure, in which they appear, affects in a measure their symbolic meaning; as an eagle in flight denotes good fortune, but one in the act of descending denotes ill luck.

As the Mohammedan religion interdicts portraying birds and beasts as well as human forms, they are rarely seen in any rug of Western Asia Minor, which is inhabited by the Sunnites, the strict conformists to the law of the Koran; but in Mohammedan countries lying farther to the east, where the s.h.i.+tes or nonconformists live, animal designs are very common. In modern rugs of Persia and Caucasia, dogs, goats, and camels are the most popular animal subjects, but the drawing is often so poor that the ident.i.ty is in doubt. In the old carpets, on the other hand, animals and human beings were most realistically drawn, and were intended to represent symbolically the weaver's thought. In fact, those masterpieces of Persian art known as the "Hunting Carpets" would lose much of their interest if their many forms of animal life were without symbolic meaning. In them the lion is a symbol of victory, power, the sun, and the day; the antelope and unicorn are symbols of restfulness and the moon. The lion destroying an antelope would mean, then, the victory of day over night, or of a powerful over a weak foe. Leopards and hounds likewise symbolise success and fame. There are also mythological creatures, as the phnix, emblematic of life and resurrection, and the winged _djinni_ or Persian spirits, that often adorn the fields and borders of some of the elaborate antique carpets of Iran.

Not only the forms of vegetable and animal life and their relative att.i.tudes to one another were intended to convey a symbolic meaning, but among almost all ancient races colours had a special significance. To the Moslems no colour was more sacred than the green, which, though difficult to produce in beautiful tones, they have placed in the fields of many of their prayer rugs. To them, also, blue was the emblem of eternity, and in the spandrels above the arches it was the symbol of the sky. Though to the Hindoo it denotes ill luck, it was the chosen colour of the Persians, as well as one of the imperial colours of the Chinese.

Among all nations yellow, another imperial colour of China, and red are suggestive of joy and happiness. Such colours, when used in conjunction with other emblems, expressed not only beauty, but also different shades of thought.

[Ill.u.s.tration: PLATE 14. PERSIAN ANIMAL CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]

These are but a few of the many motives that are employed by the weaver.

Some of them represent objects intimately a.s.sociated with his daily life. Some of them reflect his thoughts and emotions. Others are the still unsolved hieroglyphics of his craft. When, then, we examine some old worn rug, we may see only an exquisite pattern resplendent in the deep rich colours of an art now lost; but if to an aesthetic taste be added an interest in a symbolism that expresses something of the thought and life of the weaver, we may find in the study of the various designs another charm that increases with the discovery of any previously hidden meaning.

CHAPTER VII

RUG WEAVING BEFORE THE XVIII CENTURY

THERE are no records to definitely indicate in what land the art of rug weaving originated, or to disprove that it developed independently in different lands. It would be unreasonable, then, to a.s.sume that rugs were not woven in northern regions as early as in southern. In fact, during the Neolithic age the Lake-dwellers of Switzerland grew and spun flax, and it is believed that they had looms. Moreover, it is probable that the savages of cold climates soon learned to weave garments with the long wool of their sheep or goats; and the similar process of weaving mats for the floors of their huts would naturally follow.

Nevertheless, such evidence as now remains points to the civilisations of the Euphrates or the Nile, as the birthplace of this art.

Though we do not know when the first rugs were made, without a doubt they existed before the pyramids of Egypt or the palaces of Babylon had risen from the plains. Among the rock-cut tombs of Beni-Ha.s.san in Egypt, that date from about 2500 B. C. are pictures of men with spindles, of looms and weavers. There is also unmistakable evidence of the antiquity of a high state of the textile art among the ruins in the valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates. On carved walls of the palaces of Nineveh, where dwelt the rulers of a.s.syria over three thousand years ago, are elaborate drawings indicating that carpets of remarkable workmans.h.i.+p were then in use. In the borders of some of the robes worn by the rulers are designs of rosettes and latch-hooks, and on one is depicted the tree of life, similar to what may be seen in modern rugs. Nor are ancient writers silent. In the Old Testament are frequent references to woven fabrics. Homer, also, speaks of them in his Odyssey. Herodotus, Diodorus, Pliny, Strabo, in fact almost all cla.s.sic writers have mentioned them. Moreover, designs on pottery, bowls, tiles, and walls, similar in appearance to those found in the oldest existing carpets, carry contributory evidence to their antiquity and character.

This art, that necessity created, comfort nourished, and luxury matured, has been a process of slow development. To the mind of some dark tribeswoman of the desert contemplating the rushes gathered from a sluggish stream and strewn upon the floor of her master's hut several thousand years ago, may have been suggested the first idea of a mat.

Indeed, from earliest times mats of reeds, straw, bamboo, or other pliable material have been constantly made. At first they were doubtless without ornament; later they were coloured with dyes obtained from roots and herbs to increase their attractiveness; finally designs symbolic of nature or the deity were embroidered on them. As wealth and luxury increased the ornamentation became more elaborate, until during the rule of the Caliphs the mats rivalled in beauty the carpets for which, during the summer months, they were subst.i.tuted. "On these mats," wrote the eminent authority, Dr. F. R. Martin, "the artist found free scope for displaying as much artistic skill as on the real carpets, and gold threads were intertwined to make them as precious as the most expensive silk and gold carpets." Long, however, before they had reached such a high state of perfection, they would have suggested the idea of making warmer and more durable floor coverings. The first of these was a simple web of warp and woof; later they a.s.sumed a character not dissimilar to the kilims now made in the lands of their origin. With further advance, more elaborate carpets and tapestries were made; but it was not until the art had been developing for a great many centuries, that there appeared those most perfect products of knotted pile that were similar in kind but superior in quality to the modern pieces.

Slow as was this development, as early as the Christian era, the work of the most skilled weavers of the Orient deserved to be cla.s.sed as a fine art. During the time of the Sa.s.sanian kingdom (extending from about 226 A. D. to 632 A. D.) carpets of elaborate design and finish were produced in Mesopotamia and Syria. Most of them were of the wool of sheep or goats; and in them were represented designs of trees, birds, animals, and other figures. Other pieces were made of silk richly embroidered with silver and gold. Moreover, authentic evidence from the VI Century A. D. not only gives us positive knowledge of the marvellous workmans.h.i.+p of that time, but enables us to conjecture through what a long period of progression the artisans had been labouring to arrive at such results. Dr. Karabacek, director of the Imperial Library of Vienna, in his monograph "Die Persische Nadelmalerei Susandschird," gave the following description of the "Spring of Chosroes" carpet:

"When Ctesiphon, the residence of the Sa.s.sanides, fell into the hands of the Arabs in the year 637 A. D., they found in the royal palace, the ruins of which still remain, a colossal carpet of 1051 square metres,[11] which was originally made for Chosroes I. His successor, Anoschar (531-579 A. D.), used it also, but only during the stormy weather, when remaining in the gardens was impracticable. The festivities were then transferred to the palace, where a garden with the beauty of springtime was represented by the pattern of the carpet. This was the Winter Carpet that was called in Persia the Spring of Chosroes.

Its material, which was marvellous and costly, consisted of silk, gold, silver, and precious stones. On it was represented a beautiful pleasure ground with brooks and interlacing paths, with trees and flowers of springtime. On the wide borders surrounding it were represented flower-beds in which precious stones coloured blue, red, yellow, white, and green denoted the beauty of the flowers. Gold imitated the yellow-coloured soil and defined the borders of the brooks, where the water was represented by crystals. Gravel paths were indicated by stones of the size of pearls. The stalks of trees were of gold and silver, the leaves and flowers of silk, the fruits of many-coloured stones."

As the value of this carpet was estimated at about three quarters of a million dollars, it was regarded as too precious to fall to the lot of a single captor, and was accordingly divided into segments to be distributed as booty among the soldiers. Even if during this period there was no other fabric so valuable and elaborate, it represented the importance of the textile art during the dynasty of the Sa.s.sanides.

[Ill.u.s.tration: PLATE 15. PERSIAN ANIMAL CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]

During the Caliphate (632 to 1258 A. D.) the Moslem rulers, devoted to luxury, preserved the art treasures of their conquered subjects and encouraged them to renewed efforts. This is particularly true of the Caliphs and sultans of Syria and Egypt. A carpet that adorned the banquet hall of the Caliph Hisham of Egypt, who died 743 A. D., was of silk interwoven with strands of gold, and had a length of three hundred feet and a breadth of one hundred and fifty feet. All of the rooms of the Egyptian palaces, occupied by the sultans, contained carpets of silk and satin; and the mosques of Syria were similarly furnished. In the year 1067 A. D. one of the Caliphs was forced to sell his acc.u.mulated treasures, which consisted, besides jewels and works of art, of about four thousand bales of carpets. Dr. Martin states that a single one of these bales contained several hundred perfect carpets, which were woven in silk and gold, and that some of them contained portraits of entire royal families. One of them, valued at about $300,000, was made for the Caliph el Mirz li alla in the year 964 A. D. It was of blue silk, on which were represented the heavens and the earth, seas and rivers, as well as the holy cities Mecca and Medina. Such was the character of some of the carpets woven during the days of the Caliphs.

As the imperfect records which have been left us indicate that the finest carpet collections of this period were in the mosques and palaces of Syria and Egypt, it has been a.s.sumed that they were woven by the native artisans. To some extent this is doubtless true, as rug weaving was one of the oldest industries of these countries. But it is more probable that most of them were made elsewhere and were acquired as presents or by purchase. Some were made in Armenia, a.s.syria, and Turkestan; but the largest number, as well as the most costly and elaborate, doubtless came from the same hills and towns of Persia where many of the finest pieces are woven to-day. In several of these towns as many as three or four hundred looms were constantly at work; and since the carpets consisted of warp and weft only, it is probable that they were produced far more rapidly than modern rugs in which knots are tied to the warp. But if they lacked the richness of deep, heavy pile, they were elaborately woven with threads of gold and silver, and were often embellished with precious stones.

ANTIQUE PERSIAN CARPETS

To the tendency of overestimating the age of art objects to which antiquity adds value, there is no exception in the case of Oriental rugs, yet there is good reason to believe that a few pieces still exist that were woven in Persia as early as the XIII or XIV Century. Indeed, we cannot positively affirm that there may not be religiously preserved some relic of the Seljukian dynasty, which ruled in Persia till about 1150 A. D., for we have little knowledge of what some of the old mosques which no Christian has ever entered may contain; but it is more probable that the oldest remaining pieces belong to the Mongolian period, which began with the invasion of the armies of Genghis Khan in the first half of the XIII Century. This conclusion is based partly on the facts that their archaic patterns indicate a very remote period, and that they suggest early Mongolian influences. Moreover, as the age of rugs of a somewhat later period can be determined by the evidence of similarity of their designs with those of early tiles, metal work, pottery, and miniatures, of established age, it is possible to infer the relative age of these older pieces by comparison of patterns showing a progressive development.

One of the oldest Persian pieces now existing, the property of C. F.

Williams, Esq., of Norristown, Pa., is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York (Plate 11, opp. Page 64). It is also one of the most interesting. In it are found Persian, Armenian, Caucasian, and Mongolian characteristics, which serve to determine the district where it was woven and to suggest its age. Its Sehna knot, cotton warp and weft, as well as much of the drawing, are typical of Persia. The tri-cleft leaf and stem seen in the two lower corners, in the main stripe, and in parts of the field are found in almost all Armenian rugs. The reciprocal sawtooth of the outer border stripe and the geometric inner stripe are Caucasian features. Certain colour tones, the octagonal discs at each end of the large central palmettes, and more particularly the tendrils or scrolls of the main stripe of the border which resemble the foliate forms as they appear in Chinese rugs and porcelains of the late Ming and Kang-hi periods, are Mongolian. The combination of these characteristics indicates that it was made in the most northwesterly part of Persia where in 1258 Hulaku Khan established his capital, and his successors ruled for over a century. Here undoubtedly the craft of weaving flourished for a long period, and exercised an important influence on the surrounding countries. To judge by the colours; the formal character of the border; the rigid lines of the large palmette motives of the field, which are not seen in carpets of a much later period; and the stiff, archaic character of the bushes with foliage and blossoms arranged mechanically on the thick trunks, it is not unreasonable to place this piece as early as the middle of the XIV Century, during the interval between the overthrow of the Seljukian dynasty by the followers of Genghis Khan and the later invasion of the Timurids. In fact, it may be even older, since those graceful lines that belong to the highest art of a subsequent period are entirely lacking. But in the drawing is strength, and in the colours, a few of which have faded, are beauty and harmony.

[Ill.u.s.tration: PLATE 16. PERSIAN ANIMAL CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]

Such old pieces are very rare, yet a similar one, belonging to Prof. W.

Bode, is in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin. Its drawing is more regular, and the trunks of the trees are broader. These two carpets represent the art of weaving at a very early period.