A Manual of Ancient History Part 4

_General Preliminary Observations upon the History and Const.i.tution of the great Asiatic Empires._

1. Asia contained in ancient times, as it does at present, empires of immense extent, differing materially both in this respect and in their const.i.tution from the civilized nations of Europe. Changes were frequent; but the form of government continued nearly always the same.

Some deeply rooted and active principles therefore must have been in constant operation, to have given so repeatedly, in these various revolutions, the same organization to the kingdoms of Asia.

2. The great revolutions of Asia, with the exception of that caused by Alexander, were effected by the numerous and powerful nomad races which inhabited a large portion of that continent. Pressed by necessity or circ.u.mstances, they forsook their own seats, founded new kingdoms, and carried war and conquest into the fruitful and cultivated lands of southern Asia, until, enervated by luxury, the consequence of the change in their mode of life, they were in their turn, and in a similar manner, subjugated.

3. This origin, common to all Asiatic kingdoms, accounts for their immense extent, their rapid establishment, and their generally brief duration.

4. The internal organization must, for the same reasons, have been nearly alike in all; and the constant reappearance of despotism is accounted for, partly by the rights of conquest, partly by the vast extent of the subdued countries, which obliged the rulers to have recourse to satrap-government.

5. To this, it must moreover be added, that among all the considerable nations of inner Asia, the paternal government of every household was corrupted by polygamy: where that custom exists, a good political const.i.tution is impossible; fathers being converted into domestic despots, are ready to pay the same abject obedience to their sovereign that they exact from their family and dependants in their domestic economy.

To avoid confusion, it will be necessary to define the terms despotism and despotic government. In theory, we must admit THREE essentially different kinds of government. 1st. The _despotic_, in which the members of the state are not secured in the possession of their rights as men, (personal freedom and security of property,) nor of their rights as citizens, (active partic.i.p.ation in the legislative power). Such a const.i.tution exists only by force, and can never be lawful. 2nd. The _autocratic_, in which the members of the state are in full possession of their rights as men, but not of their rights as citizens. This government, therefore, arises from the union of the legislative and executive powers in the person of the ruler. In form, it is either monarchical or aristocratical (a pure monarchy, or a pure aristocracy). This kind of government is most likely to be established by usurpation; it may, nevertheless, be acquired by succession, or even adopted by common consent: it may therefore be lawful. 3rd. The _republican_, in which the members of the state are in possession of their rights, both as men and as citizens. This government necessarily presupposes a separation of the legislative and executive powers; and with regard to its form, may be either monarchical or aristocratical, (a moderate monarchy, or a moderate aristocracy).--How far can a pure democracy be called a government, and comprised under any of the foregoing heads?--Explanation of the despotism in the Asiatic kingdoms, and the attempts made to limit it by religion and religious inst.i.tutions.

6. General features in the gradual internal development of all empires formed by nomad conquerors. (_a_) At first the mere occupation of rich territories, and levying of tribute. (_b_) Hence the const.i.tutions already established among the conquered or tributary nations generally suffered to remain. (_c_) Gradual progress towards the adoption of a fixed abode and the building of cities, together with the a.s.sumption of the customs and civilization of the conquered. (_d_) Division into provinces, and, as a necessary consequence, the establishment of satrap-government. (_e_) Insurrections of the satraps, and the internal ruin of the state prepared thereby. (_f_) The influence of the seraglio on the government has the same effect, for its unavoidable consequences are--effeminacy and indolence in the rulers. (_g_) Hence the dissolution of the empire, or its total annihilation by some violent attack from without.

_Fragments of the History of the ancient Asiatic Kingdoms previous to Cyrus._

Sources, and their critical examination: 1. Jewish writings, particularly the books of Kings, Chroniclers, and the Prophets; together with the Mosaic records. 2. Greek writers, Herodotus, Ctesias, and Diodorus: later chroniclers, Syncellus, Eusebius, Ptolemy. 3. Native writer, Berosus. Futility of all endeavours to arrange into one work the accounts of authors so entirely different by birth and the times in which they flourished: a task attempted by the French writers, SEVIN, FRERET, and DEBROSSE, in their papers contained in the Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscript.

VOLNEY, _Recherches nouvelles sur l'Histoire ancienne_. 1808-1814: very important and authentic, so far as regards the system of Herodotus's chronology.

I. _a.s.syrian monarchy._

1. With the Greeks, a.s.syrian is generally a common name applied to the ruling nations about the Euphrates and Tigris before the time of Cyrus.

With the Jews, on the contrary, it signifies a distinct nation of conquerors, and the founders of an empire. Hence a necessary discrepancy between the Grecian and Hebrew statements.

2. a.s.syrian history, according to Grecian authorities, particularly Ctesias and Diodorus, is nothing more than mere traditions of ancient heroes and heroines, who at some early period founded a large kingdom in the countries about the Euphrates and Tigris; traditions without any chronological data, and in the style of the east. Ninus--Semiramis--Ninyas--Sardanapalus.

According to Herodotus, an a.s.syrian empire of 520 years' duration, 1237-717. Lists of a.s.syrian kings in the chronicles of Syncellus and Eusebius.

3. a.s.syrian history, according to Jewish authorities. Chronological history of an a.s.syrian empire between B. C. 800 and 700.--Seat of the nation in a.s.syria, properly so called.--Capital: Nineveh on the Tigris.--Extension of their dominion as far as Syria and Phoenicia.

Line of a.s.syrian kings: 1. Pul, about 773. Invasion of Syria.

2. Tiglath-Pileser, about 740. He overthrows the kingdom of Damascus.

3. Shalmaneser, about 720. He destroys the kingdom of Samaria.

Transplantation of the inhabitants into inner Asia. 4. Sennacherib, about 714. Mighty expedition against Egypt, frustrated by a pestilence. 5. Esarhaddon.

_Contemporary_: Jews, the divided kingdoms of Israel and Judah.--Greeks, decennial archons at Athens.--Romans, rise of the state and the two first kings.

II. _Median monarchy._

1. The name of Medes is undoubtedly often used by the Greeks to designate one nation; it is, however, frequently made use of as a common appellation of the ruling nations in eastern Asia, from the Tigris to the Indus, (or Persia, in the more extensive sense of that word,) before Cyrus.--With the Jews: nothing more than general hints of the Medes as a conquering nation.

2. Although the statements of the Grecian writers, as well as of the Zendavesta, sufficiently prove that long before the rise of the Persian power mighty kingdoms existed in these regions; and particularly in the eastern part, or Bactria; yet we have no consistent or chronological history of these states: nothing but a few fragments, probably of dynasties which ruled in Media, properly so called, immediately previous to the Persians.

_a._ _Herodotus's History of the Medes._ Herodotus's Medes are unquestionably the inhabitants of Media, properly so called.

Division into six tribes: among these, that of the Magi.--Ruling nation after the overthrow of the a.s.syrians.--Capital of their empire, Ecbatana.--Boundaries: west, the Tigris and Halys; east, unknown.--Internal organization: graduated subjection of the various nations to one another, according to their distance from the seat of empire; rigid despotism; and imposition of tribute.

Line of kings between B. C. 717-560. Deioces, 53 _y._ the founder of Ecbatana, _d._ 657.--Phraortes, 22 _y._ down to 635. He conquers Persia. Cyaxares I. 40 _y._ down to 595. He establishes military discipline among the Medes. Wages war with the Lydians, the a.s.syrians.--Irruption of the Scythians and Cimmerians, 625.--He takes Nineveh, 597. Astyages, 38 _y._ down to 560, when he was dethroned by Cyrus. According to Xenophon, Astyages was followed by another Median prince, Cyaxares II. _b. Ctesias's History of the Medes_, deduced from Persian archives, and contained in Diodorus.

Probably a different dynasty in eastern Asia. Line of kings, between B. C. 800 and 560. Arbaces, conqueror of the a.s.syrians, 18 _y._ Mandaucus, 50 _y._ Sosarmes, 30 _y._ Artias, 50 _y._ Arbanes, 22 _y._ Artaeus, 40 _y._ and Artynes, 22 _y._ Sanguinary wars with the nomad races of the east, the Sacae, and Cadusii. Artibarnas, 14 _y._ Astyages, the last king.

_Contemporary_: Jews, kingdom of Judah alone.--Greeks, yearly archons, Draco, Solon.--Romans, kings from Tullus Hostilius to Servius Tullius.

III. _Babylonian monarchy._

Periods: 1st. Previous to the Chaldaean conquest, which occurred about 630. 2nd. From the Chaldaean conquest to the Persian, 630-538.

1. Babylon was not only spoken of in the most remote antiquity, but is mentioned in the Jewish traditions as the earliest scene of political treaties, and as the most ancient seat of intercourse for the nations of Asia. Traditions concerning Nimrod--and the erection of the tower of Babel.--Comparison of those traditions with the Babylonian mythology in Berosus.--Scanty historical notices of this period in the later Jewish writers; and probable subjection of Babylon to the a.s.syrian empire.

2. In the second period, 630-538, the Babylonians were the ruling nation of western Asia.--The Chaldaeans take possession of Babylon, there establish themselves, and ultimately extend their empire, by conquest, to the Mediterranean.

Origin of the Chaldaeans: whether that name was applied to a distinct nation, or to the northern nomads in general?--Line of Chaldaean kings. In the enumeration of these rulers, as given by Ptolemy, this line begins with Nabona.s.sar, and the era bearing the name of that sovereign, which commences in the year B. C. 747: (probably because, under the reign of that prince, the adoption of the Egyptian solar year first introduced among the Chaldaeans an exact method of reckoning time). Neither Nabona.s.sar himself, nor his twelve immediate successors, are remarkable in history: the six last alone deserve notice. 1. Nabopola.s.sar, 627-604.

Settlement in Babylon; and complete establishment of the Chaldaeo-Babylonian dominion, by his victory over Pharaoh-Nechoh, near Circesium, in 604. 2. Nebuchadnezzar, 604-561. Brilliant period of the Chaldaeo-Babylonian empire. He conquers Phoenicia and Old Tyre about 586: Jerusalem in 587; probable irruptions into Egypt. Construction of immense buildings and ca.n.a.ls in and about Babylon. Rapid decline of the empire after his death, under--3.

Evil-Merodach, 561-559. 4. Neriglissar, (probably the contemporary of Herodotus's Nitocris;)--555. Labosoarchad murdered, after a few months' reign. Nabonadius, (Herodotus's Labynetus; and probably the Chaldaean Belshazzar;) 555-538. attacked and conquered by Cyrus. Sack of Babylon by the Persians, 538.

See the section concerning the Babylonians in A. H. L. HEEREN'S _Historical Researches_, vol. i, part. 2.

_Contemporary_: Jews, last sovereigns of the kingdom of Judah.--Greeks, Solon, Pisistratus.--Romans, Tarquinius Priscus and Servius Tullius.

IV. _States and kingdoms in Asia Minor._

The number and variety of the inhabitants of this peninsula, was probably the reason why they never became united into one empire. The most important nations among them, were the Carians in the west; the Phrygians in the centre, reaching as far as the Halys; the Syro-Cappadocians beyond the Halys; and the Thracians in Bithynia.

Nevertheless we find here but three kingdoms deserving notice--the Trojan, the Phrygian, and the Lydian.

1. The Trojan empire comprised western Mysia: its history consists of mere traditions contained in poets, with very uncertain chronological data.

Kings: Teucer, about 1400.--Darda.n.u.s--Erichthonius--Tros (Troja)--Ilus (Ilium)--Laomedon--Priam. The destruction of Troy, after a ten years' war, occurred, it is probable, B. C. 1190.

_Contemporary_: Jews, time of the Judges: before the foundation of Rome, 450 years.