Carrier_ A Guided Tour Of An Aircraft Carrier Part 7

As the aircraft finishes its break, the LSO orders the pilot over the radio to "Call the ball!" This tells the pilot to let the LSO know that he has spotted the amber "meatball" of the landing system. If the pilot does see it, he or she calls "Roger ball!" back to the LSO to confirm that. At this point, the final ten-second dash to the deck is on. On the LSO platform, the LSO and an a.s.sistant are watching and judging the aircraft's att.i.tude. Highly experienced pilots themselves, LSOs are expert judges of all this. In his or her hand, the LSO holds what is known as the "pickle." This controls a series of lights near the LSO platform, which are visible to aircraft approaching the stem. As long as the aircraft continues properly on course, the pilot gets a green "OK" light. But the LSO can also activate "more power" and "wave off" lights with the "pickle." The LSO can also coach the pilot by radio, but this is not normally done. Since an enemy could intercept radio signals in wartime conditions, "emissions control" procedures (called EMCOM Alpha in its most extreme form) dictate that combat landing operations be done only with lights. If the aircraft is set up properly, it should now be about thirty feet over the fantail, with airspeed of around 130 knots/240 kph, and a decided nose-up att.i.tude. At this point, the pilot and LSO have done their part of the job, and it is the turn of machinery to finish it.

Handling this task is the s.h.i.+p's arresting gear system, located in the middle of the 14 angle aft. Stretched across the deck are four braided steel cables (called "wires" by the crew), numbered 1 through 4, from rear to front. The wires are s.p.a.ced about fifty feet apart, and each is hooked to a pair of hydraulic cylinders located one deck below. If the pilot and LSO have set the landing up properly, the aircraft should hit the deck in the roughly two-hundred-foot/sixty-one-meter-by-fifty-foot/fifteen-meter rectangle formed by the wire system. If this happens, the tailhook hanging from the rear of the aircraft should snag one of the wires. If a successful "trap" occurs, the aircraft and hook pull the wire out of its spools belowdecks, and the hydraulic cylinders slow the aircraft to a stop in about 300 feet/91.4 meters, in just two seconds. The crew is then thrown forward in their straps, and lots of negative (forward) "Gs" nearly push their eyeb.a.l.l.s out of their sockets.

Once the aircraft is safely aboard, a green-s.h.i.+rted deck crew member called a "hook runner" clears the landing wire from the hook, while a "blue s.h.i.+rt" plane handler starts directing the pilot to taxi forward out of the landing area. When the aircraft is clear of the angle, the arresting cable is retracted and made ready for the next landing. While all this is happening, the LSO is writing down a "score" for each pilot's landing. They grade two factors. First, the general way the pilot actually flew the approach and landing. An "OK" means that this was done safely and to accepted standards. Second, the wire the pilot "snagged." As we saw earlier in the first chapter, the favored target is wire number 3, which provides the safest landing conditions and the least strain on the aircraft. Landings on wires 2 and 4, while acceptable, merit a lower score; but hitting wire number 1 is considered dangerous and usually brings the pilot counseling from the LSO.

Each pilot's landing scores are posted on what is known as the "greenie" board down in the squadron ready room for all to see. These scores are acc.u.mulated, and by the end of an entire cruise, a "Top Hook" award is given to the pilot with the best landing record. The scores also frequently affect the ratings of the pilot's airmans.h.i.+p, which affects their future promotion hopes. Great "Hooks" may go to test pilot school or become instructors, while those with lower scores may never fly off a s.h.i.+p again.

In the first chapter, I had occasion to mention one of the rules that every Naval aviator learns early: As soon as the aircraft hits the deck, push the throttles to full power. In this way, if the tailhook fails to snag a wire (called a "bolter"), he has the necessary speed to fly off the end of the angle, and get back into the landing pattern for another try. Bolters happen fairly rarely these days, though every Naval aviator still experiences them now and again. Sometimes the tailhook skips off of the deck, or just fails to connect. Whatever the reason, the 14 angled deck makes it possible for the pilot to go around again, and get aboard another time. Angled decks have saved more aircraft and aviators' lives than any invention since the development of tailhooks. The pilot just climbs out into the traffic pattern and sets up for another try. There also is an emergency net or "barrier" that can be rigged to catch an aircraft that cannot be otherwise snagged by an arresting wire. This, however, is something that no Naval aviator cares to try out if it can be avoided.

Continuing the tour of the flight deck, you can see scattered around the perimeter of the deck many different fittings and nozzles. These provide everything from jet fuel to AFFF (Aqueous Film-Forming Foam). There is also a seawater deluge system, for nuclear/chemical washdowns and fighting really really bad fires, as well as "chutes" where deck personnel can drop ordinance in danger of "cooking off," should they get too hot from a deck fire. This is another of the many risks faced by flight deck personnel, though they would tell you that not doing the "dangerous" things on "the roof" is a good way to get everyone aboard killed. These are brave people, who do heroic things every time a flight evolution takes place. I defy any nation to effectively operate sea-based aircraft without such folks. bad fires, as well as "chutes" where deck personnel can drop ordinance in danger of "cooking off," should they get too hot from a deck fire. This is another of the many risks faced by flight deck personnel, though they would tell you that not doing the "dangerous" things on "the roof" is a good way to get everyone aboard killed. These are brave people, who do heroic things every time a flight evolution takes place. I defy any nation to effectively operate sea-based aircraft without such folks.

Moving on to the island, you open another hatch, head inside, and climb up six ladders to the 010 level and the Primary Flight Control, or "Pri-Fly," as it is called. Here, some six stories above the flight deck, is the control tower for the carrier, where all the operations of the flight deck and the local airs.p.a.ce are handled by the Air Boss and the "Mini" Boss, his (or her) a.s.sistant. They are surrounded by computer displays showing everything they need to help them control the air action around the s.h.i.+p.

Climb down another ladder, and you arrive on the bridge, where the captain spends most of his time. On the port side is a comfortable elevated leather chair, which belongs to the commanding officer, and from which he normally cons the s.h.i.+p (flanked by computer screens). Over on the starboard side of the bridge are the actual conning stations, including the wheel, chart table, and positions for several lookouts. Even though the bridge is equipped with a GPS receiver, advanced radars, and all manner of electronic aids, human eyes and binoculars are still important to the safe conning of a carrier.

Just aft of Pri-Fly is arguably the most popular spot on board, "Vultures Row"-an open-air balcony overlooking the flight deck (and a good place to take in some sun). There anyone can safely watch the comings and goings below (bring your camera and earplugs!). It also offers a wide view of the whole s.h.i.+p, especially the defensive and sensor system.

From there you can see the sponson mounts for the eight-round Mk. 29 Sea Sparrow SAM launchers. The Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s carriers each have three of these systems, one forward on the starboard side, with the other two aft (port and starboard). The RIM-7M Sea Sparrow is a short-range SAM, designed to support the Mk. 15 CIWS mounts in defending the s.h.i.+p against any "leaker" aircraft or missile that makes it past the screen of Aegis missile cruisers and destroyers supporting the carrier group. Based upon the venerable AIM-7 Sparrow air-to-air missile (AAM), Sea Sparrow was originally developed to provide small s.h.i.+ps like frigates and destroyers with a short-range point-defense SAM at a reasonable cost. NATO adopted the system as the standard short-range SAM system for small escorts. Like its AAM cousin, Sea Sparrow utilizes a guidance system known as "semi-active" homing. This means that a Mk. 91 fire-control radar (each Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s carrier has three of these) "illuminates" an incoming missile or aircraft, much as a flashlight is aimed at an object in a dark room. The seeker head of the missile "sees" the targets reflected radar energy from the Mk. 91 radar. The guidance system of the missile then automatically provides it tracking to the target.40 [image]

An eight-round Mk. 29 RIM-7M Sea Sparrow launcher aboard the USS George Was.h.i.+ngton Was.h.i.+ngton (CVN-73). (CVN-73).

JOHN D. GRASHAM.

Sea Sparrow is an excellent point-defense system that gives the s.h.i.+p good protection out to a range of up to 10 nm/18.5 km. Back in the 1980's, it was enhanced through the addition of a Mk. 23 Target Acquisition System (TAS) radar. This fast-rotating system can detect low-flying and high-angle targets, and then pa.s.s them along automatically to the Sea Sparrow system for engagement. The system's only drawback is that once the eight ready rounds have been fired from the Mk. 29, the launcher must be manually reloaded. Sea Sparrow is being improved through the development of the Enhanced Sea Sparrow Missile (ESSM) System, which marries the basic seeker system with a new airframe. This will give ESSM more range and performance than RIM- 7M, as well as the ability to be fired from both Mk. 29's and the Mk. 41 vertical launch system (VLS) launchers found on newer wars.h.i.+ps.

Unlike surface s.h.i.+ps, flattops do not have many convenient spots for placing antennas for radios and sensors. This has to do partly with maintaining appropriate separation between emitting antennas, and partly with the need to avoid clutter on the flight deck during flight operations. For this reason, the island structures of American carriers have always been antenna farms. You'll also find a number of UHF/VHF radio antennas on the edge of the flight deck, placed on special mounts that rotate horizontally during flight operations. On Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s carriers there is additionally a large antenna mast just aft of the island, to hold those radar and communications antennas that need to be as high as possible. These masts and mounts hold a variety of sensors including: * SPS-48E SPS-48E-A 3-D air-search radar that provides air traffic control and battle management functions. This high-resolution radar has a reported range out to approximately 60 nm/110 km.* SPS-49(V)5 SPS-49(V)5-This is the best current Naval 2-D air-search radar. Extremely reliable, with a detection range of up to several hundred miles/ kilometers, SPS-49's are found on most major combatants in the U.S. Navy, as well as many foreign vessels.* SPS-64(V)9 SPS-64(V)9-This is primarily a surface-search/navigation radar for keeping formation and operating close to sh.o.r.e. It is a development of the cla.s.sic Litton LN-66 navigation radar. * * SPS-67 SPS-67-The SPS-67 is a general-purpose surface-search radar, designed to provide precise targeting data against surface targets.* Mk. 23 Target Acquisition System (TAS) Mk. 23 Target Acquisition System (TAS)-This is a small, fast-rotating radar for detecting sea-skimming or high-angle missile attacks. It feeds data directly into the SYS-2 (V)3 weapons-control system, which can automatically activate the RIM-7/Mk. 29 Sea Sparrow SAM systems.* Mk. 91 Fire Control System (FCS)- Mk. 91 Fire Control System (FCS)-The three Mk. 91 FCSs provide guidance for the RIM-7M Sea Sparrow SAM launched by the three Mk. 29 launchers.* SLQ-32 (V)4 SLQ-32 (V)4-The SLQ-32 is a family of electronic-warfare systems, which can be tailored to the protection requirements of a particular s.h.i.+p. The (V)4 version has a wide-band radar-warning receiver, a wide-band radar jammer, and a bank of Mk. 137 Super Rapid Blooming Chaff (SRBOC) launchers. These six-barreled mortars throw up a cloud of chaff (metal-coated Mylar strips) and infrared decoys to blind or confuse an incoming missile at the last moment prior to an attack.* WRL-1H WRL-1H-The WRL-1H is a general-purpose wide-band radio/radar-warning /intercept receiver, designed to provide a basic intercept capability for everything from radio traffic to bearings on radar sets.

The array of antennas on the island structure of the USS George Was.h.i.+ngton George Was.h.i.+ngton (CVN-73). This is representative of the configuration on late-production (CVN-73). This is representative of the configuration on late-production Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s (CVN-68) carriers.

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

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These systems give the carrier's commanding officer and battle group staff good situational awareness of the battle s.p.a.ce surrounding their s.h.i.+p and the ARG. Along with the supporting sensor systems, the island also provides mounts for many of the s.h.i.+p's communications systems. While many of these are cla.s.sified, they cover the full range of the electromagnetic spectrum and functions. The most interesting of these are the domed antennas for the satellite communications systems, which provide much of the high-reliability secure communications for the battle group.

Since they were originally designed primarily to transmit encoded text messages, even these systems have limits. Today, carriers need a lot more than just a relatively slow, secure means of receiving words. This problem surfaced with particular impact during Desert Storm, when none of the U.S. Navy carriers had the ability to receive the daily Air Tasking Order (ATO) from CENTCOM's air command in Riyadh. Every other air unit in the theater, including those of our allies, could get the ATO (which ran to hundreds of pages of densely formatted text), even if only by high-speed FAX machines over secure phone lines. But the Navy, having always planned on fighting on their own in the open ocean, was ill prepared for the communications required for joint operations with other services. As a result, the Navy did not receive its daily delivery of the ATO by high-tech satellite or data link, but by hand-delivered paper copies flown in by an S-3 Viking. As might be imagined, this was quite an embarra.s.sment for the Navy, and as a result it began to put together systems to relieve this lack of joint connectivity.

The first try at a solution to the problem was known as the "Challenge Athena" experiment. Challenge Athena I-initially an experimental system on board the USS George Was.h.i.+ngton George Was.h.i.+ngton (CVN-73)-is a two-way, low-speed (around 768 kilobytes per second-kps) satellite link based upon commercial antenna technology. Originally developed for use in delivering intelligence photos and conducting video teleconferences, it has grown into a much broader communications system, and in the process has become incredibly popular with everyone in the fleet. Along with the obvious benefits to top planners and commanders, Challenge Athena provides the crew not only with two-way E-mail contact home, but also with direct live access to commercial television channels like CNN and ESPN. A new high-speed version of the system, Challenge Athena III, is about to be installed throughout the carrier force, as well as on fleet flags.h.i.+ps, big-deck amphibious s.h.i.+ps, and perhaps even major combatants like the Aegis cruisers and destroyers. A comparable system is being developed for use by submarines, to support Tomahawk cruise-missile targeting, special operations, and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) missions. The domed Challenge Athena antennas are located on the flight deck level, outboard of the island and the crotch. (CVN-73)-is a two-way, low-speed (around 768 kilobytes per second-kps) satellite link based upon commercial antenna technology. Originally developed for use in delivering intelligence photos and conducting video teleconferences, it has grown into a much broader communications system, and in the process has become incredibly popular with everyone in the fleet. Along with the obvious benefits to top planners and commanders, Challenge Athena provides the crew not only with two-way E-mail contact home, but also with direct live access to commercial television channels like CNN and ESPN. A new high-speed version of the system, Challenge Athena III, is about to be installed throughout the carrier force, as well as on fleet flags.h.i.+ps, big-deck amphibious s.h.i.+ps, and perhaps even major combatants like the Aegis cruisers and destroyers. A comparable system is being developed for use by submarines, to support Tomahawk cruise-missile targeting, special operations, and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) missions. The domed Challenge Athena antennas are located on the flight deck level, outboard of the island and the crotch.

Now it is time to go below. After a drop down a stack of six ladders from the bridge, we find ourselves on the 03 or "Gallery" level, directly under the flight deck. Heading inboard, we find two central pa.s.sageways running the length of the full s.h.i.+p. Almost a quarter-mile long, these pa.s.sageways seem to go on forever, with only an occasional cross-pa.s.sageway to break the monotony of "knee knockers" and watertight hatches. Most of what we see here are doors, lots of them, behind some of which are the real "brains" of the s.h.i.+p-the various command, air wing, and squadron s.p.a.ces. In addition, most of the air wing officers and flag staff personnel live here. If you turn left and head aft down the main starboard pa.s.sageway, you pa.s.s compartments filled with the hydraulic cylinders for the arresting-gear system. These are gigantic, filling the s.p.a.ce between the two main corridors. The compartments here are also even more spotlessly clean than the rest of the s.h.i.+p, since one of the first signs of trouble in a hydraulic system is telltale leaks of fluid.

Farther aft are many of the squadron ready rooms. These large s.p.a.ces are the headquarters for the various flying squadrons and detachments attached to the carrier's embarked air wing. The ready room is the inner sanctum of a flying squadron, a combination of clubhouse, rest area, and meeting/ briefing/planning center. Since the rules of naval aviation allow a freedom of speech and expression that would not be tolerated in other areas aboard s.h.i.+p, ready rooms are extremely private places (where life as a naval aviator is seen at its most raw and splendid). This means that they are for aviators and only only aviators, and permission is required before aviators, and permission is required before anyone anyone else is allowed inside. else is allowed inside.

Ready rooms are wondrous places, filled with historic photos, trophies, and plaques from the unit's past. At the front of the ready room is the desk for the squadron duty officer and a large white board for briefings and discussions. There also are rows of the most comfortable chairs you will ever sit in. Based on a design that predates the Second World War, they are soft but firm, with thick leather covers embossed with the squadron's colors and logo. They can also recline for a short nap between sorties, and have fold-down writing tables for scribbling notes.

At the rear of the room is a small enclosed area where the terminal for the Tactical Aircrew Mission Planning System (TAMPS) is located. TAMPS is an automated system that allows air crews to perform route and mission planning. Since it can take into account effects like terrain masking and enemy air defense weapons envelopes, TAMPS is a major improvement over the old system of paper maps, photos, and air crew intuition. After each squadron does their planning over the networked TAMPS system, the staff of the air wing can review an entire strike/mission plan before the mission is flown.

After leaving the ready room, we'll head forward. After we've pa.s.sed through about a third of the s.h.i.+p, the tile changes from normal Navy gray to a bright blue, meaning that we have reached what the crew calls "blue tile country." This is the central command and control complex for both the s.h.i.+p and the carrier battle group. The deck in "blue tile country" is subdivided into a series of s.p.a.ces, each dedicated to a different set of warfare tasks. These include: * Combat Information Center (CIC) Combat Information Center (CIC)-This is the battle nerve center of the s.h.i.+p, with displays for all of the s.h.i.+p's sensors, as well as information acquired from data links and national sources (the DoD term for reconnaissance satellites, aircraft, and other systems). The CIC is specifically designed to present all the available data on the combat situation to the officers making the decisions about how to "fight" the s.h.i.+p. Filled with consoles, terminals, and big-screen displays, this s.p.a.ce has separate zones for antisub, antiair, and antisurface warfare, communications, damage control, and other functions. Back in World War II a captain normally fought his s.h.i.+p from the bridge, but today's Arleigh Burke or Phillip Vian will normally be found at a glowing console within a dimly lit CIC. Aircraft carriers' CICs are somewhat different from those of other s.h.i.+ps. On a carrier, not all of the terminals and personnel are in a single room, as they are on an Aegis cruiser or destroyer. This better hardens the s.h.i.+p against attack, and avoids a huge and overmanned s.p.a.ce, which could be destroyed by a single hit. Thus, the various warfare specialties-antiair (AAW), antisubmarine (ASW), antisurface (ASUW), etc.-have their own small control centers, which forward their data into the main CIC.* Carrier Air Traffic Control Center (CATCC)- Carrier Air Traffic Control Center (CATCC)-The CATCC is a control center for handling airs.p.a.ce and traffic control around the battle group. This one is different from a local FAA control center, in that it moves with the s.h.i.+p and has the ability to data-link information from offboard sensor systems like Aegis s.h.i.+ps and AEW aircraft (E-2Cs, E-3's, etc.).* Tactical Flag Command Center Tactical Flag Command Center-The TFCC is essentially a duplicate in miniature of the CIC. The difference is that the TFCC is specially configured to maximize access to data that flag officers (i.e., admirals/ battle group commanders) need. To support this requirement, the TFCC was developed with the same kinds of large-screen displays and workstations that you would find aboard the Aegis s.h.i.+ps that screen the carrier. (The TFCC used to be called "Flag Plot," but that s.p.a.ce now resides up on the island.)* Joint Intelligence Center (JIC) Joint Intelligence Center (JIC)-The Joint Intelligence Center is a clearinghouse for information required by the s.h.i.+p, the battle group, and embarked air units. a.n.a.lysts in the JIC can draw from vast databases of National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) maps, satellite photography, and anything else the intelligence community provides. The JIC staff is a "rainbow" organization from every unit in the battle group, as well as from other services and intelligence organizations. Even better, they can probably probably tell you what it all means. tell you what it all means.* s.h.i.+ps Signals Exploitation s.p.a.ce (SSES) s.h.i.+ps Signals Exploitation s.p.a.ce (SSES)-This small sealed s.p.a.ce is for the really really secret stuff: "exploitation" of enemy radio signals and electronic emissions. Equipped with data links to national and theater-level intelligence systems, the SSES can provide battle group leaders with up-to-date information on enemy intentions and activities. Only specially cleared intelligence and communications technicians are allowed inside. secret stuff: "exploitation" of enemy radio signals and electronic emissions. Equipped with data links to national and theater-level intelligence systems, the SSES can provide battle group leaders with up-to-date information on enemy intentions and activities. Only specially cleared intelligence and communications technicians are allowed inside.

Normally, these are all quiet places manned by a small staff working in s.h.i.+fts. But when an operation or exercise is under way, they resemble a darkened beehive without the buzz, everyone working around the clock until the exercise is finished. By the way, it's really really cold there, due to the vast amounts of air-conditioning and chill water needed to keep all the electronics and computers from literally melting down. Even in the dog days of August, you often find console operators and other watch-standers wearing wind-breakers and pullover sweaters to keep the chill out of their bones. cold there, due to the vast amounts of air-conditioning and chill water needed to keep all the electronics and computers from literally melting down. Even in the dog days of August, you often find console operators and other watch-standers wearing wind-breakers and pullover sweaters to keep the chill out of their bones.

A two-person officer stateroom aboard a Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s (CVN-68) carrier.

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

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Forward of the command s.p.a.ces are the flag quarters, where the battle group commander and his staff live. If any place on a carrier can be called luxurious, this is it. There is fine furniture and wood paneling, a large mess and briefing area, a private galley, and the admiral's stateroom, office, and head. Comfortable and functional, all of these s.p.a.ces are within a few seconds walk of the TFCC. Its comfort notwithstanding, n.o.body I know likes working in the flag quarters. That is because the flag s.p.a.ces are directly under the launch shuttle and JBD for Catapult Number 1. The noise during deck operations is deafening, and living and working here during round-the-clock flight operations is downright unpleasant. Such things in fact rarely bother the admiral and staff personnel, however, since they don't get that much sleep anyway. The demands of running a battle group mean that if they are getting more than six hours of sleep every day, they are probably not working hard enough! By a strange irony, the nicer the quarters, the less time an occupant gets to spend in them. While rank and responsibility bring physical rewards, most senior officers rarely have the free time while aboard to enjoy them.

Moving forward again, we find more ready rooms, as well as dozens of staterooms for the air wing personnel and s.h.i.+p's officers. Most of these are two-man units, and are actually quite pleasant to live in (as I did for several days). The racks are doubled-decked, and somewhat larger than those of the enlisted personnel. There is a fair amount of personal stowage s.p.a.ce, as well as a small fold-down desk. Each officer has a safe for cla.s.sified materials and personal items, as well as a small sink and mirror. Though a few staterooms have shared heads and shower facilities, most officers use one of the many community head/shower s.p.a.ces around the s.h.i.+p. Roommates also usually go in together on electronic items like a "boom box" stereo, television, and VCR; and there is a box for plugging these into the s.h.i.+p's cable television and radio network, as well as the commercial feeds from the Challenge Athena system.

Forward of the living s.p.a.ces, there is a truly wonderful place, called the "Dirty s.h.i.+rt" galley and wardroom area. This is the only officers' wardroom aboard where wearing flight suits and flight deck work gear is "acceptable." While the other wardrooms belong to the s.h.i.+p, the "Dirty s.h.i.+rt" wardroom "belongs" to the air wing, which means that aviator traditions apply here. "Dirty s.h.i.+rt" menus tend to be more informal, and talking "shop" is allowable. Each squadron has its own table, and etiquette dictates that you ask permission to join anyone who is already there. Still, more often than not, you will find a warm smile and an invitation to join the conversation. In the "Dirty s.h.i.+rt" mess there is also is a neat, little-known secret: the "dog" machine-the nickname for the soft-serve ice cream dispenser, which is kept going around the clock.41 It is a wonderful diversion from the sometimes-spartan life aboard s.h.i.+p; and the "Dirty s.h.i.+rt's" dog machine is usually the best on the s.h.i.+p. It is a wonderful diversion from the sometimes-spartan life aboard s.h.i.+p; and the "Dirty s.h.i.+rt's" dog machine is usually the best on the s.h.i.+p.

Heading aft, about two-thirds of the way back, we come to a cross-corridor intersection with what looks like a small store on each corner. These are the various squadron "shops" for the flying units of the air wing, with one such s.p.a.ce for every squadron in the air wing. Here all the data on the readiness, flying and maintenance status, and ordinance/stores loadouts of every squadron's aircraft is managed. Here also is where the Command Master Chief (CMC) for each squadron works. The CMC is the senior enlisted sailor in each squadron, and functions as the shop foreman who keeps the aircraft ready to fly and fight. The CMC also functions as an advisor and advocate for the enlisted personnel of the squadron to the unit's officers. Along with the entire corps of petty officers, the CMCs are the inst.i.tutional "glue" of the Navy, and a good officer rapidly learns this fact. Finally, they are the keepers of the "Squadron Store." This sells coffee mugs, T-s.h.i.+rts, patches, and stickers of the squadron logo (called "zaps"). If you get aboard a carrier, be sure to pick up a few of these, since the money always goes into the squadron relief fund. I always do.

Returning aft to the island ladder well, we head down four more levels to the Second Deck (deck levels above the hangar or main deck have numbers-01, 02, etc.-while decks below are spelled out). Here most of the crew (officers and enlisted personnel) take their meals. Both have galley and eating facilities here, and something like fifteen thousand meals a day are served on this deck alone. The enlisted personnel eat cafeteria-style in three large s.p.a.ces amids.h.i.+ps that can hold about five hundred personnel at a time. The officers' wardroom (called "Number Three") is farther aft, and is essentially a sit-down-style restaurant, though there's a buffet line if you desire. Always open, Wardroom Three is the social center of the s.h.i.+p. Here the officers can come together for a few minutes and share news of the day with their s.h.i.+pmates. Coffee, "bug juice" (the Navy version of "Kool Aid"), and nacho machines are always powered up, and you can usually beg a meal from the mess stewards if you look as though you've worked hard enough. There even is what is jokingly known as the "nuclear-powered cappuccino machine," which dispenses a pa.s.sable cup of that delicious brew.

Surrounding the officers' wardroom on the Second Deck are the state-rooms for most of the s.h.i.+p's senior officers and department heads. Like the flag quarters on the 02 level, these are very pleasant, with private offices and head/shower facilities. Also like flag quarters, they are used very little since there is very little time for sleep and relaxation while aboard a nuclear supercarrier. Aft of the wardroom are more enlisted quarters. These are much like the ones we've already visited, except that flight deck sounds are m.u.f.fled by the ma.s.s of the s.h.i.+p; and you'll probably hear and feel instead the s.h.i.+p's engineering plant. At high speeds (over twenty-five knots), when the hull begins to resonate, the background buzz can be annoying. Another annoyance is the heat on the lower decks when the s.h.i.+p pa.s.ses through warm water like the Gulf Stream or Persian Gulf. Things can get downright steamy under some conditions.

The main control panel of the pump room aboard the carrier Harry S. Truman Harry S. Truman (CVN-75). This panel controls the main pumps for the entire s.h.i.+p, and is located between the magazines at the bottom of the vessel. (CVN-75). This panel controls the main pumps for the entire s.h.i.+p, and is located between the magazines at the bottom of the vessel.

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

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Dropping down another ladder, you come upon the machinery s.p.a.ces on the Third Deck, where most of the systems that keep the s.h.i.+p "alive" are contained. Here and on the deck below are machine shops, electrical switchboards and emergency diesel generators, the s.h.i.+p's laundry, medical and dental facilities, and the air-conditioning plant. Also on the Third Deck is the s.h.i.+p's store, the post office (a surprisingly large facility), and the newly installed banks of satellite phones. These allow sailors to call home from anywhere in the world for about a dollar a minute, and make a real difference in the lives of the crew.

Below the Fourth Deck are the heavily protected and restricted s.p.a.ces dedicated to the nuclear reactors, propulsion machinery, ammunition magazines, and pump rooms. Surrounded by a double hull with ma.s.sive voids (specially designed buffer zones to absorb explosions) as protection against damage, these are the safest and most secure areas of the s.h.i.+p. Due to the security restrictions placed upon the Navy by the Department of Energy and the Director of Naval Reactors (NAVSEA 08), I'm not able to describe their layout or equipment.42 I can say, however, that the two Westinghouse A4W reactors provide enough saturated steam to run the s.h.i.+p at thirty-plus knots while leaving enough electricity to power all the s.h.i.+p's other systems com-fortably.The four General Electric steam turbines put out 280,000 shp to four shafts, and are highly agile at starting and stopping. I can say, however, that the two Westinghouse A4W reactors provide enough saturated steam to run the s.h.i.+p at thirty-plus knots while leaving enough electricity to power all the s.h.i.+p's other systems com-fortably.The four General Electric steam turbines put out 280,000 shp to four shafts, and are highly agile at starting and stopping.

With the tour at an end, we drag our weary bones and joints up to the hangar deck, and walk over to the accommodation ladder back to the dock. By now you have a pretty good idea of the layout of today's Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s carriers. However, the four-decade production run of this design is starting to wind down, and new ideas are beginning to be put forth for a new generation of flattop. Read on, and I'll try and give you some ideas about what they will look like.

The Future: CVN-77 and CVX-78 The Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s carriers are as capable as their designers and builders could manage back in the late 1960's, representing an almost optimum mix of capabilities for operations during the Cold War. Yet SCB-102 is a design in its third decade of continuous production, the Cold War is now history, and it is time to think about a replacement after the Ronald Reagan Ronald Reagan is launched in a few years. That is exactly what the Navy is doing. The U.S. Navy will always have the mission of projecting forward presence with a regular cycle of carrier rotations. At the same time, the Navy also foresees dealing more frequently with irregular, unpredictable situations. And finally, there is the necessary requirement to keep costs of building, operating, and maintaining carriers reasonable. is launched in a few years. That is exactly what the Navy is doing. The U.S. Navy will always have the mission of projecting forward presence with a regular cycle of carrier rotations. At the same time, the Navy also foresees dealing more frequently with irregular, unpredictable situations. And finally, there is the necessary requirement to keep costs of building, operating, and maintaining carriers reasonable.

Question: How can the Navy do all that? How can the Navy do all that?

Answer: Accept the fact that is it time for a new direction in flattop design and construction. Accept the fact that is it time for a new direction in flattop design and construction.

To do this, NNS founded a carrier "Skunk Works" called the Carrier Innovation Center, based a stone's throw from Dry Dock 12 at Newport News.44 Here the NNS design engineers are studying ways to build carriers that will be more suited to the operations the post-Cold War will bring. Working in concert with a number of other corporate partners, as well as NAVSEA, NNS has helped the Navy form a two-step plan for taking carrier construction and sea-based Naval aviation into the 21st century. Here the NNS design engineers are studying ways to build carriers that will be more suited to the operations the post-Cold War will bring. Working in concert with a number of other corporate partners, as well as NAVSEA, NNS has helped the Navy form a two-step plan for taking carrier construction and sea-based Naval aviation into the 21st century.

Phase one of the plan involves the building of one additional Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s carrier after the USS Ronald Reagan Ronald Reagan (CVN-76), which is now under construction. This unnamed carrier, known today as CVN-77, will be a (CVN-76), which is now under construction. This unnamed carrier, known today as CVN-77, will be a Nimitz Nimitz only under the skin. Current plans have CVN-77 utilizing a basic only under the skin. Current plans have CVN-77 utilizing a basic Nimitz Nimitz power plant and hull structure up to the main deck level, but from there on up everything else will be new. CVN-77 will be used as a technological "bridge" s.h.i.+p where a number of new technologies and ideas will be tried out. While some of these technologies have yet to be fully defined, most have already been inserted into the ma.s.s of requirements doc.u.ments being produced at NAVSEA. They include: power plant and hull structure up to the main deck level, but from there on up everything else will be new. CVN-77 will be used as a technological "bridge" s.h.i.+p where a number of new technologies and ideas will be tried out. While some of these technologies have yet to be fully defined, most have already been inserted into the ma.s.s of requirements doc.u.ments being produced at NAVSEA. They include: * Signature Reduction- Signature Reduction-This is stealth technology, or more accurately "low observables." Can anyone actually hide a quarter-mile-long monster from modern sensor systems? The answer is "yes," but with qualifications. You have to remember that an object's radar, thermal, electronic, and acoustic signature has very little to do with its actual size. Shaping, materials, and other engineering details have much more to do with these characteristics. By way of example, an expert I spoke with claimed that a 90% reduction in the radar cross section of a carrier could be achieved through relatively minor, though detailed, changes to the s.h.i.+p's island; sponsion, and deck structures. This would mean that a Nimitz Nimitz-sized s.h.i.+p might be given a radar signature smaller than a guided-missile frigate's. Already, outstanding signature reduction work has been done on Arleigh Burke-cla.s.s (DDG-51) Aegis destroyers, which are extremely tough to see on radar and infrared sensors.* Automation/Reduced Manning Automation/Reduced Manning-A key Navy initiative is to reduce manning aboard s.h.i.+ps (primarily as a cost-saving measure). With over 70% of every defense dollar going to personnel costs, the Navy figures it can save over $50,000 per year for every sailor who can be eliminated or replaced by automation. According to current plans, CVN-77 will implement many of the "Smart s.h.i.+p" systems that are being tried out on the USS Yorktown Yorktown (CG-47). These systems have already reduced the size of the (CG-47). These systems have already reduced the size of the Yorktown's Yorktown's crew by 15%. The Navy has even greater goals for CVN-77, and a cut of from 25% to 33% is considered possible. This could mean a reduction of up to one thousand personnel from the s.h.i.+p's company, and a savings of over $50 million a year over a "standard" Nimitz. That translates into some $2.5 billion during the fifty-year service life of CVN-77. crew by 15%. The Navy has even greater goals for CVN-77, and a cut of from 25% to 33% is considered possible. This could mean a reduction of up to one thousand personnel from the s.h.i.+p's company, and a savings of over $50 million a year over a "standard" Nimitz. That translates into some $2.5 billion during the fifty-year service life of CVN-77.* Adaptive Mission Features Adaptive Mission Features-CVN-77 will be capable of rapid reconfiguration for missions other than those traditionally a.s.sociated with "big deck" aircraft carriers. Operations "short-of-war" and disaster/humanitarian relief missions are becoming the rule rather than the exception. To this end, the Navy has decided to redesign the interior s.p.a.ces of CVN-77 to provide more adaptability. The changes include air wing enlisted berthing areas with the kinds of personal stowage (weapons, ammunition, etc.) required by Marines or other ground personnel who might go into ground combat. Likewise, air wing planning, control, and unit s.p.a.ces will be more capable for joint operations, so that units like Army helicopter battalions or special operations forces could use them with a minimum of modification. Finally, the hangar bays and elevators are being redesigned to increase aircraft options, so that tilt-rotor aircraft, UAVs, and even the planned new generation of unmanned combat aerial vehicles-UCAVs-can be carried and operated. One senior Naval a.n.a.lyst has even suggested the inclusion of a "Roll-On, Roll-Off" (Ro-Ro) ramp on the fantail for loading of vehicles and cargo. All of this adds up to a carrier with more capability and variety than any ever built.* Process/Work Flow Improvements Process/Work Flow Improvements-NNS has made a formal review of the jobs done on board a carrier in order to identify key areas where "process improvements" can be implemented into the CVN-77 design. NNS is looking at what is called a flight deck "pit stop." There the crews servicing aircraft or waiting to launch could do so under shelter from the elements. Performing more flight deck functions in the hangar deck (arming, fueling, etc.) would also reduce the wear and tear on both personnel and equipment. And several tasks like ordnance loading (for very strong backs) and critical movement paths through the s.h.i.+p for supplies and personnel will be automated. This would eliminate the many "bucket brigades" of sailors moving supplies through the corridors. There is even some consideration of putting a "ski jump" on the bow to enhance the launching of the new generation of carrier aircraft, which might eliminate the need for catapults.45 * * Materials Improvements Materials Improvements-A wide variety of new materials are being considered for inclusion in the CVN-77 design. Heat-resistant silica tiles should allow the jet blast deflectors to dispense with the traditional water-cooling system. A new lightweight blown fiber-optical local area network (LAN) cabling will increase the speed and capacity of the s.h.i.+p's data network by up to 100,000 times. Composites for interior and topside structures (to reduce weight) and radar-absorbing materials (RAM-to a.s.sist in signature reduction) will also make their debut on CVN-77. Hull paints and non-skid coatings with vastly expanded service lives (measured in years instead of months) are also being developed, and all of these substances will be more environmentally "friendly." Finally, with an eye to the day in the middle of the 21st Century when CVN-77 will itself go to the sc.r.a.p yard, a master material list will be prepared, so that whoever takes it apart will know what to be careful with. The Navy is still having nightmares removing asbestos lagging (insulation) aboard s.h.i.+ps built before the EPA banned the stuff. The master materials list should put an end to such problems.* Weapons- Weapons-While the Mk. 29 Sea Sparrow launchers and Mk. 16 Phalanx have provided adequate point defense to past Nimitz Nimitz-cla.s.s carriers, it is likely that CVN-77 will be equipped with more potent armament. Following the lead forged by the new San Antonio San Antonio-cla.s.s (LPD-17) amphibious dock s.h.i.+ps, CVN-77 will probably be equipped with several cl.u.s.ters of Mk. 41 VLS systems, suitable for launching the Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile (ESSM) that is being developed as a follow-on to the RIM-7M Sea Sparrow SAM. Each eight-cell Mk. 41 module (which can be cl.u.s.tered with up to seven additional modules to build a 64-cell missile launcher) can carry up to four ESSM rounds per cell. Since the Mk. 41 launcher can also launch other weapons (like the BGM-109 Tomahawk cruise missile), you might see quite a few VLS cells scattered about the deck edges of the CVN-77. Also expect that three or four 21-round Mk. 49 launchers for RIM-116 point defense SAMs will be there as well. RAM is rapidly replacing the old Mk. 15 20mm Phalanx CIWS aboard Navy wars.h.i.+ps, and it is likely that CVN-77 will be equipped with RAM from the start.* Data/Electronic Systems Data/Electronic Systems-Though computer-based systems are used aboard wars.h.i.+ps for everything from propulsion control to sending E-mail home, wars.h.i.+p designers did not actually take the digital revolution into account until fairly recently. The technology of personal computers, networks, and workstations has moved so quickly that equipment and technologies in NAVSEA s.h.i.+p specifications are usually obsolete before they go out for contract. NNS is therefore recommending that the Navy "open" the specification for the data, electronic, and electrical systems to include what is known as commercial, off-the-shelf (COTS) technologies, and to specify performance beyond anything currently in production. For example, the fiber optical LAN currently installed in the USS George Was.h.i.+ngton George Was.h.i.+ngton (CVN-73) is a 10-BaseT/T-1-style system, with data-transfer rates of around ten megabytes (MB) per second. For the CVN-77 design, NNS is thinking about a s.h.i.+pboard LAN with data-transfer rates in the terabit (TB-that is, 1,000,000 MB)-per-second range. Though specifying a LAN with a capacity 100,000 times greater than the one aboard s.h.i.+ps today may sound absurd, it makes perfect sense if you consider that computer and LAN technology is doubling in speed and capacity every eighteen months. By allowing commercial-style equipment and software aboard s.h.i.+p (such as using Windows NT as a s.h.i.+pboard-wide operating system), costs are reduced and the crew will be given equipment that is as up to date as government procurement can make it. Finally, NNS will try to use COTS systems in the future wherever a military-specification, custom-built electronic system might be used now. (CVN-73) is a 10-BaseT/T-1-style system, with data-transfer rates of around ten megabytes (MB) per second. For the CVN-77 design, NNS is thinking about a s.h.i.+pboard LAN with data-transfer rates in the terabit (TB-that is, 1,000,000 MB)-per-second range. Though specifying a LAN with a capacity 100,000 times greater than the one aboard s.h.i.+ps today may sound absurd, it makes perfect sense if you consider that computer and LAN technology is doubling in speed and capacity every eighteen months. By allowing commercial-style equipment and software aboard s.h.i.+p (such as using Windows NT as a s.h.i.+pboard-wide operating system), costs are reduced and the crew will be given equipment that is as up to date as government procurement can make it. Finally, NNS will try to use COTS systems in the future wherever a military-specification, custom-built electronic system might be used now.* Zonal Electrical Distribution Systems Zonal Electrical Distribution Systems-While the computer/electronics revolution is generally a good thing, you still have to power all this new stuff. Unbelievable as it may seem, all of the laptop computers, televisions, VCRs, and personal stereo equipment aboard s.h.i.+p are now causing significant electrical problems for carriers. Even though a nuclear power plant gives you enough electrical power to light a small city, you still have to effectively distribute all that power to where it is required, when it is needed, without overloading the power-distribution system. To do this, the Navy and NNS want to install what is known as Zonal Electrical Distribution Systems. Using this system, for example, the s.h.i.+p's systems involved with daytime operations (in offices and work s.p.a.ces like laundry and galley facilities) can be powered when they are most active, and isolated when they are idle. Zonal Distribution will also improve damage-control capabilities because of increased system redundancy.* Communications Systems Communications Systems-Ever since Desert Storm pointed out its relative isolation, the USN has been trying to catch up with the other services in communications technology. Although the Challenge Athena system is a good start, it lacks both the reliability and bandwidth (i.e., data-flow capacity) to handle the volume of data required in a major war. Further, the need for additional bandwidth, especially in the satellite frequencies, has been growing almost as fast as the speed and power of computer/ LAN technology. Therefore, CVN-77 will have a communications capacity far beyond that of current s.h.i.+ps. In particular, the new high-speed satellite systems preferred by the regional CinCs will be emphasized, as well as secure data-link systems for distribution to other s.h.i.+ps in the battle group.

One of several proposed Newport News s.h.i.+pbuilding designs for CVN-77. Based on a Nimitz- Nimitz-cla.s.s (CVN-68) hull and power plant, the new carrier would incorporate stealth technology, as well as a number of improved operating features.

NEWPORT NEWS s.h.i.+PBUILDING.

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All of these features will make CVN-77 the most powerful and capable aircraft carrier ever built. Though it will be a Nimitz Nimitz in the hull and propulsion systems, it will be totally new in almost every other way. Though the schedule for CVN-77 is based upon funding dates that will be controlled by a President and Congress that have not yet been elected, current plans have the s.h.i.+p funded in FY-2001, with delivery in Fiscal Year 2008 (it is planned to replace USS in the hull and propulsion systems, it will be totally new in almost every other way. Though the schedule for CVN-77 is based upon funding dates that will be controlled by a President and Congress that have not yet been elected, current plans have the s.h.i.+p funded in FY-2001, with delivery in Fiscal Year 2008 (it is planned to replace USS Kitty Hawk Kitty Hawk (CV-63)). (CV-63)).

The second element in the Navy's carrier production plan is currently known as CVX (Aircraft Carrier-Experimental), which will be the lead s.h.i.+p of a new cla.s.s of carriers, the first in almost a half century. The program, which will hopefully deliver its first s.h.i.+p in FY-2013, is designed to incorporate all of the "bridge" technologies from CVN-77, as well as some other improvements that will be possible because of the new hull and power plant that will be part of the design. Some of these new features will include: * Hull Design Hull Design-The hull form of the CVX is still under study, though it will probably be a traditional monohull design. It is likely that the CVX will displace something more than the 95,000 tons of the Nimitz Nimitz-cla.s.s carriers. What the s.h.i.+p will actually look like, however, is anyone's guess.* Propulsion/Power Plant Propulsion/Power Plant-If there is any sticking point in the design of the CVX-cla.s.s carriers, it will be over the question of the power plant. Though powerful arguments against nuclear-powered wars.h.i.+ps remain, for all its vices (such as cost and environmental concerns), nuclear power provides real benefits for the captains and crews of aircraft carriers, and this means that any change had better offer significantly greater benefits. In order to resolve this question, NNS has been conducting a power plant study for CVX at their Carrier Innovation Center. There they are looking at gas turbines, turbine-electric motors, marine diesels, fossil-fueled boilers, and nuclear power as candidate CVX power plants. While the study is still in the early stages, don't be surprised if nuclear power winds up the winner. Steam turbines are a highly compact and efficient means of powering large wars.h.i.+ps, and nuclear reactors are more compact and efficient than boilers for producing that steam.* Weapons-CVX Weapons-CVX will probably have a mix of Mk. 41 and 49 launchers very like CVN-77's. However, laser weaponry is advancing so fast that the first CVX or some of its sister s.h.i.+ps may well be equipped with a first-generation laser CIWS. The Air Force will deploy a similar system aboard a modified Boeing 747-400 in a few years, and a s.h.i.+pboard system would probably be a highly effective counter to the new generation of supersonic antis.h.i.+p weapons now being deployed around the world. will probably have a mix of Mk. 41 and 49 launchers very like CVN-77's. However, laser weaponry is advancing so fast that the first CVX or some of its sister s.h.i.+ps may well be equipped with a first-generation laser CIWS. The Air Force will deploy a similar system aboard a modified Boeing 747-400 in a few years, and a s.h.i.+pboard system would probably be a highly effective counter to the new generation of supersonic antis.h.i.+p weapons now being deployed around the world.* Catapults Catapults-Though for over a half century steam catapults have been successfully shooting aircraft off carriers, they nevertheless have significant drawbacks. For one thing, the high-pressure steam lines that power the catapults are complex and take up a lot of internal volume. For another, the saturated steam they carry is vicious stuff if a line cracks or breaks or is damaged. Finally, if a leak develops or the pressure is incorrectly set, steam catapults will occasionally "cold shoot" aircraft into the water. All of these problems have led to a major CVX initiative to replace the old steam units with a catapult using another technology. For instance, the electromagnetic technology that was to be used on the rail guns being designed for the Strategic Defense Initiative back in the 1980s might well work on carriers. However, an internal-combustion technology looks like a better prospect. Here jet fuel would power a contained fuel-air detonation in a piston to fire the aircraft on its way. Internal-combustion catapults are simple and reliable in concept, and could use the existing jet fuel system on the flight deck.* Automated Weapons Handling Automated Weapons Handling-Since weapons stowage, movement, buildup, loading, and arming eat up an enormous portion of a carrier's personnel, a high priority in the CVX design is to automate the weapons handling and loading on future aircraft carriers. One idea already under consideration involves using an unpowered, but human-controlled, bomb cart and loader that makes clever use of counterweights and levers to upload even the largest pieces of Navy ordnance. Other ideas include robotic inventory/handling control of weapons in the magazines.* Advanced Flight/Hangar Deck Management- Advanced Flight/Hangar Deck Management-One of the Navy's biggest challenges is to improve the efficiency of operations on the flight and hangar decks. Specifically, they want to reduce the number of personnel involved in operations on the flight/hangar decks, to improve the quality of the work environment, and to increase the rate of sortie generation for the embarked air wing. Along with the "pit stop" systems planned for use on CVN-77, robotic servicing equipment will probably be used for fueling, arming, aircraft handling/positioning, and for monitoring systems.

If the CVX-78 program manages to stay on track, the first s.h.i.+p of the cla.s.s will be commissioned sometime in 2013, and a second unit will probably be added to the fleet about four or five years later. Beyond that, it's anybody's guess. We're talking about aircraft carriers that will be operating in a world fifty years from now. What will the world and the military balance of 2050 look like? I wish I knew. But if the people at NNS and NAVSEA have done their homework, the carriers being built and planned today will provide useful platforms to base the combat aircraft of tomorrow well past the halfway mark of the 21st century.

Tools of the Trade: Birds and Bombs One day when I was a young man just beginning to design airplanes, the great person who founded the company that bore his name, Donald Douglas, took me by the shoulder and taught me a lesson that was simple, though vital to success. At the time, we were trying to generate business from the U.S. Navy. "Navy planes take a beating," he said.

"They slam down on the carriers when they land and get roughed up by the unforgiving elements of the high seas.

If we want the Navy to buy our airplanes, we must build them rugged. They have to take punishment and still work. "

Aircraft Design (Ed Heinemann, 1985)

It is a matter of historical record that some things on carrier aircraft are terribly simple, and can't be easily replaced. The Curtis biplane that Eugene Ely first landed on the Pennsylvania in 1911 was equipped with many of the same items used by modern carrier aircraft. In particular, it had a small tailhook and a beefed-up tail structure so that the sudden shock of deceleration from the primitive arresting system would not tear the aircraft apart. However, good as these "shade tree" solutions to getting on and off carriers were, they were just a start. Future naval aircraft would have even more systems to adapt them to the unique problems and challenges of the ocean environment. Hard as it is on sailors and s.h.i.+ps, the ocean is a terror for pilots and aircraft, and the challenges it offers to airplane designers are unlike anything found on land.

First and most obvious are the problems of moisture and corrosion, which can literally eat a plane or helicopter from the inside out. Then there are the limitations of the s.h.i.+p's confined s.p.a.ces for operating and storing aircraft, and the need to reduce the aircraft's "footprint" while on the flight deck. These aircraft must also be able to operate in what has to be an "expeditionary" environment, where crews may lack the maintenance and repair facilities of a land base. Then there is the matter of a.s.sisting the aircraft into and out of the air without destroying them. And like all military aircraft, these flying machines must be capable of carrying useful payloads an adequate distance with acceptable performance and a good survival rate.

With this in mind, it's not hard to understand why only a handful of companies worldwide have successfully built aircraft for naval service. Carrier aircraft are odd hybrids, combining the qualities of conventional planes that fly off concrete runways with the unique ability to operate off the confined s.p.a.ces of wars.h.i.+ps. While naval aircraft perform virtually all the missions that land-based aircraft do, they are also tasked with a number of missions unique to the sea services. For example, the U.S. Air Force (USAF) takes a well-deserved pride in dropping laser-guided bombs (LGBs) down the center of buildings, but the U.S. Navy has aircraft that can do that too. In addition, these same Navy craft can hunt submarines, defend s.h.i.+ps against missile attacks, and transfer supplies between vessels. These are just some of the many jobs unique to naval aviation, and Navy aircraft have to be equipped to handle the fullest possible range of roles and missions. This has generally made naval aircraft among the most capable and flexible designs of their design generations. Perhaps the best example of this was the cla.s.sic F-4 Phantom II, which served not only with the Navy and Marine Corps, but also the USAF and over a dozen foreign countries. Such diversity and capability is not easy, and it comes at a high price.

In general, naval aircraft are both heavier and more complex than equivalent land-based craft. In an era where the cost of new aircraft is directly tied to their weight, USN aircraft generally are more expensive-which usually means smaller production runs and higher financial and technical risks for the manufacturers. Very few companies have been able to meet all of these challenges and turn a profit. For decades, just a few manufacturers have dominated the American naval aviation scene. Airframes made by Grumman, McDonnell Douglas, and Sikorsky were for many years all that you could find on the decks of U.S. carriers. In fact, the rare bird from a company like Lockheed or General Dynamics (traditional USAF contractors) was considered an aberration, a sign that the favored inc.u.mbent had made an error during the design compet.i.tion. As a result, naval aircraft design grew inbred and lacked some of the innovation seen in land-based designs. Back in the 1970's, the Navy was fully briefed on the results of the USAF's Have Blue program. This was the flying prototype of the 1970's that led to the development of the Lockheed F-117A Nighthawk stealth fighter. But the USN chose to ignore the new technology in favor of more conventional aircraft-only one example of such lost opportunities. Another lost chance came when Texas Instruments began to develop its third-generation Paveway III LGB and the Navy stuck with the older-generation Paveway II-series bombs. With just these two decisions, the USN denied itself the two most effective weapons of the Gulf War.

By making a string of similar decisions, naval aviation leaders.h.i.+p fostered a two-decade-long Dark Age that denied them some of the best that modern aeros.p.a.ce technology had to offer. The result was the near-mortal wounding of naval aviation as a community in the early 1990's, just at the time that they were being forced to find new roles, new missions, and even new enemies in the post-Cold War world. In an era when military power was becoming more "precision" oriented, naval aviation still valued how well a pilot could deliver a "stick" of unguided iron bombs. As of this writing, it has been over fifteen years since the Navy has taken delivery of a completely new tactical aircraft for fleet use. During that same period, over a half-dozen other major aircraft programs have been canceled or terminated. Desert Storm found the fleet ill-equipped for the first major post-Cold War conflict, and the part it did play was poorly publicized to a world hungry for the high-tech images of LGBs. .h.i.tting their targets with eye-splitting precision.43 Even worse, following the Persian Gulf war, it began to appear that the top leaders.h.i.+p of U.S. naval aviation could not even buy the aircraft and weapons they would need to fit into the new "littoral warfare" strategy planned for the 21st century. There was even an attempt by the top leaders of the USAF to replace carrier aviation with a concept called "Virtual Presence." This was the notion that long-range bombers based in the continental U.S. and armed with precision weapons could threaten potential enemies enough that forward-based forces like carrier battle groups would not be necessary.44 "Virtual presence" was a nice idea, especially if you wanted to justify the purchase of additional B-2A Spirit stealth bombers. Unfortunately, it was completely unrealistic in a world where "presence" really is the sight of a gray-painted USN s.h.i.+p near where a crisis is breaking. Clearly, naval aviation had to "get well" so that it could fulfill its essential task in the national security of the U.S. "Virtual presence" was a nice idea, especially if you wanted to justify the purchase of additional B-2A Spirit stealth bombers. Unfortunately, it was completely unrealistic in a world where "presence" really is the sight of a gray-painted USN s.h.i.+p near where a crisis is breaking. Clearly, naval aviation had to "get well" so that it could fulfill its essential task in the national security of the U.S.

All Fall Down: Naval Aviation in the 1980s Earlier (see the third chapter), we saw how the culture of naval aviators has been forced to deal with changes in the society of the nation they serve. Unfortunately, there was more than just a morale problem to be dealt with. Material problems were also at the heart of the questioning of the credibility of naval aviation by the national leaders.h.i.+p. Not that these were new problems-they first started over two decades ago. Naval aviation's downward slide really began back in the 1970s, when the administration of President Jimmy Carter cut off the funds for services to upgrade their equipment, an action that was coupled with an almost complete moratorium on the buying of replacement weapons and spare parts for aircraft. Carriers frequently went on cruises short of airplanes with only partially filled magazines, requiring the "cross-decking" of planes, munitions, and equipment from s.h.i.+ps headed home. Naval aviation was being forced to eat its "see