Carrier_ A Guided Tour Of An Aircraft Carrier Part 9

Today the Hornet is the backbone of U.S. carrier aviation, and will remain that way for at least the next decade. Every CVW is being equipped with three F/A-18 squadrons (each with twelve aircraft), which means that fully half of the aircraft on U.S. carrier decks today are Hornets. There will soon be significant Hornet upgrades, with the introduction of new PGMs, as well as a new version of the cla.s.sic AIM-9 Sidewinder. Even so, there can be little doubt that the F/A-18's short legs, limited weapons load, and design compromises will continue to be a lightning rod for critics. Still, the folks who fly the Hornet love their mounts. Though it's a flying compromise, it's easy to fly, forgiving for new pilots, and capable of many different missions.

EA-6B Prowler: The Electric Beast Looking like a flying metal tadpole, the EA-6B Prowler will probably be the last survivor of a long line of Grumman carrier aircraft that date back to before the Second World War. Its mission is electronic warfare (EW), which explains why the aircraft looks like a flying antenna farm. As many as thirty (or more) antennas are smoothly faired into the fuselage or packed into the "football" (actually, it looks more like a Brazil nut), a fibergla.s.s radome at the top of the vertical stabilizer. These devices allow the Prowler to throw an invisible veil of protection over the aircraft and s.h.i.+ps of the carrier battle group. They detect, cla.s.sify, and locate enemy radar, electronic data links, and communications, then jam them with precisely crafted and targeted interference. And as an added bonus, since 1986 Prowlers have also been capable of making "hard kills" using the AGM-88 High-Speed Anti-Radiation Missile (HARM), which homes in on radar transmitters and shreds them with a blast-fragmentation warhead.53 Today, the Prowler is the finest tactical EW aircraft in the world. It's so good that the USAF is quietly retiring its own fleet of EF-111 Raven EW aircraft and employing EA-6Bs in joint (USN/USAF) squadrons. All this is even more impressive when you consider that the thirty-year-old Prowler design has been around for almost half of the six decades that radar has been used in military operations; and with regular updates, it has at least another ten or fifteen years to go.

Electronic warfare (intercepting and jamming enemy signals) began with the first military use of radio in the Russo-j.a.panese War (1905), and reached a high degree of sophistication during the Second World War, as Axis and Allied scientists and technicians fought for control of the electromagnetic spectrum. EW aircraft have been in use since World War II, with modified USN TBF/TBM Avengers being among the first such aircraft. The start of the Vietnam War saw two carrier-capable EW birds in service with the Navy, though both were already getting old. The EA-1E was a modification of the cla.s.sic Douglas AD-1 Skyraider, while the EKA-3B "Electric Whale" (which also served as a tanker aircraft) was a development of the Cold War-era A-3 Skywarrior attack bomber. As American aircraft began to fall to radar-controlled AAA guns, SAMs, and MiGs over Vietnam, the need for a third-generation EW aircraft became almost desperate. Out of this need came the development of what would become the EA-6 Prowler.

The original airframe of the Prowler was derived from the A-6 Intruder, which was the Navy's first true true all-weather, day or night, low-level medium-strike aircraft. The Intruder saw extensive combat in Vietnam, the Cold War, and Desert Storm, and was immortalized in Stephen c.o.o.nts's 1986 novel, all-weather, day or night, low-level medium-strike aircraft. The Intruder saw extensive combat in Vietnam, the Cold War, and Desert Storm, and was immortalized in Stephen c.o.o.nts's 1986 novel, Flight of the Intruder. Flight of the Intruder. The Prowler's immediate ancestor, the EA-6A, was a modified two-seat "Electric Intruder" developed to fill a Marine Corps requirement for a jammer aircraft that could escort strike missions into the high-intensity threat of North Vietnam's integrated air defense system. Hard-won experience showed that what was really needed for such missions were more EW operators and jammers aboard the aircraft. From this came the all-new EA-6B Prowler, which is an all-weather, twin-engine aircraft manufactured by Northrop Grumman Aeros.p.a.ce Corporation as a modification of the basic A-6 Intruder airframe. The first flight of the EA-6B was on May 25th, 1968, and it entered operational service in July of 1971. Just a few months later, the Prowler entered combat over Vietnam with VAQ-132, based on aircraft carriers in the Gulf of Tonkin. The Prowler's immediate ancestor, the EA-6A, was a modified two-seat "Electric Intruder" developed to fill a Marine Corps requirement for a jammer aircraft that could escort strike missions into the high-intensity threat of North Vietnam's integrated air defense system. Hard-won experience showed that what was really needed for such missions were more EW operators and jammers aboard the aircraft. From this came the all-new EA-6B Prowler, which is an all-weather, twin-engine aircraft manufactured by Northrop Grumman Aeros.p.a.ce Corporation as a modification of the basic A-6 Intruder airframe. The first flight of the EA-6B was on May 25th, 1968, and it entered operational service in July of 1971. Just a few months later, the Prowler entered combat over Vietnam with VAQ-132, based on aircraft carriers in the Gulf of Tonkin.

The Prowler is big for a "tactical" aircraft. The overall length is 59 feet, 10 inches/17.7 meters. It has a wingspan (with the wings unfolded) of 53 feet/15.9 meters, and sits 16 feet, 3 inches/4.9 meters high on the deck. It is also quite heavy, with a maximum gross takeoff weight of 61,000 lb/ 27,450 kg, much of which is fuel. The Prowler has a cruising speed of just over 500 knots/575 mph/920 kph, an unrefueled range of over 1,000 nm/ 1,150 mi/1,840 km, and a service ceiling of 37,600 feet/11,460 meters.

The EA-6B can hardly be called a "high performance" tactical aircraft. Although it is quite stable in flight and relatively easy to fly, the Prowler is somewhat underpowered. The two non-afterburning Pratt & Whitney J52-P408 turbojet engines lack the kind of thrust available to F-14 or F-18 crews (11,200 lb/5,080 kg of thrust each), which presents the pilot with a number of challenges during every mission (especially on takeoff and landing). Due to the complexity of its systems, the EA-6B is also a relatively high-maintenance aircraft-about one mission in three returns with a "squawk" or malfunction requiring unscheduled maintenance. On the plus side, the side-by-side twin c.o.c.kpit arrangement gives maximum efficiency, visibility, and comfort for the four-person crew. This is important during long missions, which can last up to six hours with in-flight refueling. The canopies are coated with a microscopically thin (and very expensive) transparent layer of gold leaf, which reflects microwave energy and protects the crew from getting cooked by their own high-energy jammers.

The Prowler's crew includes a pilot and up to three Electronic Countermeasures Officers (ECMOs). The senior officer on board-either the pilot or one of the ECMOs-is normally the mission commander. In fact, a Prowler squadron commander is often an ECMO rather than a pilot. ECMO-1, who mans the position to the pilot's right, handles navigation and communications, while ECMO-2 and -3 (they sit in the rear c.o.c.kpit) manage the offensive and defensive EW systems. Within the squadron, there are normally more crews than aircraft, due to the workload of flying, administration, and mission planning. In a low-threat environment, a crew of three is considered sufficient-with one ECMO remaining behind on the boat to plan the next mission, catch up on paperwork, or perform any of the countless additional duties that Naval aviators must juggle when they are deployed.

The Prowler's EW capabilities depend largely on the ALQ-99 electronic countermeasures system. This is not a single piece of equipment, but a complex and ever-changing mix of computers, jammers, controls and displays, receivers, and transmitters. Some of these components are built into the airframe, while others are packaged in pods. All are externally identical, but each is optimized for specific frequency bands. Up to five such pods can be carried-two under each wing and one under the fuselage. A more typical mission configuration is two or three pods, with the other stations occupied by fuel tanks or AGM-88 HARM missiles. Each pod generates its own electrical power, using a "ram air turbine" or RAT (a compact generator spun by a small propeller). To generate full power for jamming, the aircraft must fly above a minimum speed (225 knots). Using the RATs brings a slight drag penalty; the Prowler loses about 1 % of its maximum combat radius for each pod carried. Still, the pods and missiles are the reason why the Prowler exists. Without the electronic smoke screen provided by the EA-6B's jamming pods, losses to enemy defensive systems would be many times greater than they have been.

Normally, the EA-6B is used to provide a combination of services for strike packages inbound to a target area. If active SAM sites are nearby, the ECMOs will use the ALQ-99 to provide targeting for the HARMs, which are deadly accurate when fired from a Prowler. Once the HARMs are gone, the EA-6B orbits away from the target area and uses the ALQ-99 jammer pods to "knock back" enemy radars and other sensors that might engage the strike group. Other missions include electronic surveillance, as the ALQ-99 is a formidable collection system for electronic intelligence (ELINT). Because they are considered "high value units" by enemy defenders, one or two fighters usually provide them with an escort, just in case the locals get nosey. In fact, no Prowler has ever been lost in combat, though about forty have been destroyed in accidents. The worst of these was a horrific crash while landing aboard the Nimitz Nimitz (CVN-74) back in 1979, which killed the entire crew as well as a number of deck personnel in the ensuing fire. (CVN-74) back in 1979, which killed the entire crew as well as a number of deck personnel in the ensuing fire.

EW is an unusual facet in the spectrum of warfare. For every measure there is a countermeasure, and the useful life span of a system in actual combat is often only a few months. Because a new "generation" of electronic warfare technology emerges every few years, if you fall a generation behind you are "out of the game." This helps to explain the bewildering variety of upgrades and variants that mark the Prowler's long career. Production of new-built Prowlers ended several years ago, but about 125 remain in active service today. This is just enough for twelve Navy, four Marine Corps, and four "joint" squadrons of EA-6Bs. Normally, each deploys with four aircraft. Navy and joint USAF/USN Prowler squadrons are home-based at NAS Whidbey Island, Was.h.i.+ngton, while the Marine units live at MCAS Cherry Point, North Carolina. The joint EA-6B squadrons are a new phenomenon in the post-Cold War world, an expression of budget realities that no longer allow the services to duplicate aircraft types with the same mission. Although the Navy and USAF developed very different EW concepts and doctrine over the years, the Air Force has agreed to retire its only tactical jammer aircraft, the EF-111 Raven. Now the two services will "share" five joint "expeditionary" Prowler squadrons, which will operate with mixed Navy and Air Force ground and flight crews. Despite the predictable concerns about USAF officers commanding Navy squadrons (or vice versa), this program is well under way and looks to be a real winner.

Like their brethren in the Tomcat community, EA-6B crews have learned some new tricks in recent years, like shooting AGM-88 HARM missiles at enemy radars. Prowlers have even been used as command and control aircraft, functioning as strike leaders for other planes on bombing missions. Other improvements include plans to start another upgrade program known as ICAP (Improved Capability) III. This will take the basic EA-6B package as it currently exists (known as Block 89) and add improved computers, signal processors, and jammers, as well as a GPS receiver, new radios and data links, and other new avionic systems. ICAP III-equipped Prowlers should begin to appear in a few years. As for future EW aircraft on carriers, long-range plans have been developed for a two-seat EW version of the new F/A-18E/F Super Hornet. A highly automated follow-on version of ALQ-99 would be fitted to this bird, as well as more advanced HARMs and other systems. However, since there is no money for this bird in the current budget, the old Prowlers will have to soldier on for at least another decade or two.

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A cutaway view of a Raytheon AGM-88 HARM anti-radiation missile.

JACK RYAN ENTERPRISES, LTD., BY LAURA DENINNO.

E-2C Hawkeye: Eyes of the Fleet Put a sensor of sufficient resolution high enough, and you will see enemy forces before they can harm you. This is the guiding princ.i.p.al behind most early warning systems, from reconnaissance satellites to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). For naval leaders, there is no more important "high ground" than that occupied by Airborne Early Warning (AEW) aircraft. The first U.S. Navy AEW birds date back to World War II, when converted TBF/ TBM Avengers were modified to carry a small airborne radar and operator for the purpose of detecting incoming j.a.panese Kamikaze aircraft far enough out for fighters to be vectored to intercept them. After the war, special purpose-built AEW aircraft were developed. These were designed to deal with the new generation of jets and ASMs faced by Cold War-era Naval forces. The first of these was the Grumman E-1 Tracer, a development of the S-2F Tracker ASW aircraft. For almost a decade the E-1 worked as the primary carrier-based AEW aircraft for the USN; but the operational conditions of the Vietnam conflict showed the numerous shortcomings of the Tracer, including poor overland radar performance and limited endurance and service alt.i.tude. Though they served aboard modified Ess.e.x-cla.s.s Ess.e.x-cla.s.s (SCB-27C/CV-9) carriers until 1976, there was a clear need for a more advanced AEW aircraft for the fleet. That aircraft was the E-2 Hawkeye. (SCB-27C/CV-9) carriers until 1976, there was a clear need for a more advanced AEW aircraft for the fleet. That aircraft was the E-2 Hawkeye.

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The business end of a VRC-40 C-2A Greyhound COD aircraft on the deck of the USS George Was.h.i.+ngton (CVN-73). These aircraft are used to ferry personnel, cargo, and supplies to and from carrier battle groups.

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

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One of the last propeller-driven aircraft in the CVW, the E-2C Hawkeye is the Navy's all-weather, carrier-based tactical AEW aircraft. The E-2C uses computerized sensors for early warning, threat a.n.a.lysis, and control against air and surface targets. It provides the carrier battle group with all-weather AEW services, as well as command, control, and communications (C3) functions for the carrier battle group. Additional missions include surface surveillance, strike and interceptor control, Combat Search and Rescue (CSAR) guidance, Over-the-Horizon (OTH) targeting, and communications relay. Designed to a 1955 specification, and upgraded through at least six generations of electronic technology, the Hawkeye remains in production today. The E-2C has also been adopted by the French Navy, and at least five other countries that do not even have aircraft carriers. This is a tribute to the cost-effective mix of robust airframe, compact sensor and avionics suite, and turboprop power plants. Unit cost: $51 million-cheap for the protection it provides. Before you gag on that number, consider that a new F/A-18E/F Super Hornet will cost you even more per copy, and I don't know any battle group commander who would not like a few more of the precious E-2Cs.

One thing all that money does not buy is beauty. As you walk up to a Hawkeye, pieces of it seem to be going everywhere. Wings are folded back on the fuselage, with the big radar rotodome perched up top like a tethered flying saucer. Though it is not gorgeous to look at, the E-2C has a functional elegance, doing the same kind of mission as its larger USAF cousin, the Boeing E-3 Sentry. That it does this on an airframe a fifth the size, and off a carrier deck, is a measure of its sophistication and value. When the Grumman engineers designed the E-2, they started with a perfect cylinder. Into this they packed all the electronics, fuel, two pilots, and three radar controllers. The finis.h.i.+ng touch came when they mounted the rotating radar dome (called a "rotodome") on top, and attached a pair of long wings mounting a pair of Allison T-56-A427 turboprop engines with five thousand shaft horsepower each.

Dimensionally, the Hawkeye is 57 feet, 6 inches/17.5 meters long, with a wingspan of 80 feet, 7 inches/28 meters, and a height of 18 feet, 3 inches/ 5.6 meters to the top of the radar dome. Though it is the largest aircraft flying on and off carriers today, it is not the heaviest. At a maximum gross takeoff weight of 53,000 lb/23,850 kg (40,200 lb/18,090 kg "dry"), the E-2C is actually lighter than the F-14 Tomcat. The wings have the longest wingspan of any carrier aircraft in the world; and when folded, they use the cla.s.sic Grumman "Stow-Wing" concept, which has them folding against the fuselage. The tail is composed of a horizontal stabilizer with four vertical stabilizers to give the Hawkeye the necessary "bite" to move the heavy bird around the sky. Though it has only ten thousand horsepower behind the twin props, the Hawkeye is capable of speeds over 300 knots/345 mph/552 kph, and can operate at alt.i.tudes of 30,000 feet/9,144 meters. Because Hawkeyes are unarmed, no battle group commander would be considered sane if there were less than two fighters protecting his E-2C. Hawkeyes are true "high value units" and are always always a target for enemy fighters. a target for enemy fighters.

On board, the crew of five is busy, for they're doing a job that on the larger E-3 Sentry takes several dozen personnel. The pilot and copilot fly precisely positioned and timed racetrack-shaped patterns, designed to optimize the performance of the E-2C's sensors. In back, the three radar-systems operators are tasked with tracking and sorting the contacts detected by the Hawkeye's APS-145 radar. This Westinghouse-built system is optimized for operations over water and can detect both aircraft and surface contacts out to a range of up to 300 nm/345 mi/552 km. To off-load as much of the workload as possible, a great deal of the raw data is sent back to the task force's s.h.i.+ps via a digital data link. With this off-board support, the three console operators are able to control a number of duties, including intercepts, strike and tanker operations, air traffic control, search and rescue missions, and even surface surveillance and OTH targeting.

Along with the 141 E-2Cs produced for the USN, the Hawkeye has had considerable export success. No less than six foreign governments have bought them: Israel (four), Egypt (six), France (two for their new carrier Charles de Gaulle), Charles de Gaulle), j.a.pan (thirteen), Singapore (four), and Taiwan (four). There are more Hawkeyes in use throughout the world than any other AEW aircraft ever built. j.a.pan (thirteen), Singapore (four), and Taiwan (four). There are more Hawkeyes in use throughout the world than any other AEW aircraft ever built.

There also has been one major variant of the Hawkeye, a transport version known as the C-2A Greyhound. Basically an E-2 airframe with a broader fuselage and the radar rotodome deleted, it can deliver cargo and pa.s.sengers hundreds of miles/kilometers out to sea. Known as a COD (for Carrier Onboard Delivery) aircraft, it replaced the elderly C-1 Trader, which is itself a variant of the earlier E-1 Tracker. With its broad rear loading ramp and fuselage, the C-2 can carry up to twenty-eight pa.s.sengers, twenty stretcher cases, or cargo up to the size of an F-110 engine for the F-14.

The Hawkeye has had a long run in USN service. The original -A model was first flown in October 1960, to provide early warning services for the new generation of supercarriers then coming into service. In January 1964, the first of fifty-nine E-2As were delivered to their squadrons, and were shortly headed into combat in Southeast Asia. These were later updated to the E-2B standard, which remained in use until replaced by the E-2C in the 1970's. The first E-2Cs entered USN service with Airborne Early Warning Squadron (VAW) 123 at NAS Norfolk, Virginia, in November of 1973. The -C-model Hawkeye was produced in order to provide the F-14 Tomcat with an AEW platform matched to the new fighter's capabilities. Though visually identical to the earlier models, the E-2C was equipped with new-technology digital computers that provided a greatly increased capability for the new Hawkeye. These gave the operators the ability to track and intercept the dozens of Soviet bombers and hundreds of ASMs and SSMs that were expected to be fired at CVBGs if the Cold War ever turned "hot."

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E-2C Hawkeye AEW aircraft on the deck of the USS George Was.h.i.+ngton George Was.h.i.+ngton (CVN-73). They generally parked alongside the island structure, on a spot called "the Hummer Hole." (CVN-73). They generally parked alongside the island structure, on a spot called "the Hummer Hole."

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

In any event, the E-2Cs never directed the ma.s.sive air battles they had been designed for. Instead, the Hawkeye crews spent the declining years of the Cold War flying their racetrack patterns over the fleets, maintaining their lonely vigil for a threat that never came. Carrier-based Hawkeyes were not strangers to combat, however. E-2Cs guided F-14 Tomcat fighters flying combat air patrols during the 1981 and 1989 air-to-air encounters with the Libyan Air Force, as well as the joint USN/USAF strike against terrorist-related Libyan targets in 1986. Israeli E-2Cs provided AEW support during their strikes into Lebanon in 1982, and again during the larger invasion the following year. More recently, E-2Cs provided the command and control for successful operations during the Persian Gulf War, directing both land strike and CAP missions over Iraq and providing control for the shoot-down of the two Iraqi F-7/MiG-21 fighters by carrier-based F/A-18's. E-2 aircraft have also worked extremely effectively with U.S. law enforcement agencies in drug interdictions.

Today the entire Hawkeye fleet is being upgraded under what is called the Group II program. Along with thirty-six new-production aircraft, the entire USN E-2C fleet is being given the improved APS-145 radar, new computers, avionics, data links, and a GPS/INS system to improve flight path and targeting accuracy. This means that a single Hawkeye can now track up to two thousand targets at once in a volume of six million cubic miles of airs.p.a.ce and 150,000 square miles of territory. Current plans have the Hawkeye/ Greyhound fleet serving until at least the year 2020, when a new airframe known as the Common Support Aircraft (CSA) will be built in an AEW version. By that time, the basic E-2 airframe will have served for almost six decades!

A VS-32 S-3B Viking ASW aircraft on the deck of the USS George Was.h.i.+ngton Was.h.i.+ngton (CVN-73) with wings folded. The S-3B has rapidly taken over many critical roles in carrier operations, espcially in-flight refueling of other aircraft. (CVN-73) with wings folded. The S-3B has rapidly taken over many critical roles in carrier operations, espcially in-flight refueling of other aircraft.

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

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Lockheed Martin S-3B Viking: The Vital "Hoover"

Antisubmarine warfare (ASW) is probably the most complex, frustrating, operationally challenging, and technically secretive mission that any aircraft can be called upon to perform. To locate, track, cla.s.sify, and destroy a target as elusive as a nuclear submarine in the open ocean often seems virtually impossible. And against a quiet modern diesel boat in noisy coastal waters, the odds are even worse. In fact, the ASW mission doesn't have to be that successful. It has succeeded as long as enemy subs are forced to go deep, run quiet, and keep their distance from a Naval task force or convoy. It is a matter of record that the most effective weapon against submarines during the Second World War was the ASW patrol aircraft. Such aircraft have continued to do this job ever since.

Today, the USN operates two fixed-wing ASW aircraft. One is the venerable four engined P-3C Orion, which operates from land bases. The other is its "little brother" from the Lockheed Martin stable, the S-3B Viking, which is carrier-capable. Airborne ASW has long been a Lockheed specialty. Their land-based Hudson and Ventura patrol bombers played a key role in World War II against German U-boats. More recently, their P-2V Neptune and P-3 Orions have kept vigil over the world's oceans, watching for everything from submarines to drug-running speedboats. The so-called "sea control" mission is thankless work, with nearly day-long missions, most of which are flown over inhospitable and empty seas. The boredom arising from these missions in no way reduces their importance. A maritime nation that cannot monitor and control the sea-lanes it uses is destined to sail at the whims of other powers.

Early on, carrier aviators knew that they too needed the services of such aircraft, and began to build specially configured ASW/patrol aircraft shortly after the end of World War II. The first modern carrier-based ASW aircraft was Grumman's twin-engine S-2 Tracker, which entered service in 1954 and remained in the fleet for over twenty-five years with more than six hundred built.54 In 1967, the growing sophistication of the Soviet submarine threat led the Navy to launch a compet.i.tion for a radically new generation of carrier ASW aircraft. Known as the VSX program, it was designed both to replace the Tracker and to provide a utility airframe for other applications. In 1969, the design submitted by Lockheed and Vought was declared the winner and designated S-3. The prototype S-3A first flew on January 21 st, 1971, and the type entered service in 1974 with VS-41 at NAS North Island, California. By the time S-3A production ended in 1978, 179 had been delivered. In 1967, the growing sophistication of the Soviet submarine threat led the Navy to launch a compet.i.tion for a radically new generation of carrier ASW aircraft. Known as the VSX program, it was designed both to replace the Tracker and to provide a utility airframe for other applications. In 1969, the design submitted by Lockheed and Vought was declared the winner and designated S-3. The prototype S-3A first flew on January 21 st, 1971, and the type entered service in 1974 with VS-41 at NAS North Island, California. By the time S-3A production ended in 1978, 179 had been delivered.

The S-3 Viking is a compact aircraft, with prominent engine pods for its twin TF-34-GE-2 engines. This is the same basic non-afterburning turbofan used on the Air Force's A-10 "Warthog," and its relatively quiet "vacuum-cleaner" sound gives the Viking its nickname: the "Hoover." The crew of four sits on individual ejection seats, with the pilot and copilot in front, and the tactical coordinator (TACCO) and sensor operator (SENSO) in back. A retractable aerial refueling probe is fitted in the top of the fuselage, and all S-3B aircraft are capable of carrying an in-flight refueling "buddy" store. This allows the transfer of fuel from the Viking aircraft to other Naval aircraft. Because ASW is a time-consuming business that requires a lot of patience and equipment, the Viking is relatively slow, with a long range and loiter time. This means the S-3 is pretty much a "truck" for the array of sensors, computers, weapons, and other gear necessary to find and hunt submarines. But don't think that the Viking is a sitting duck for anyone with a gun or AAM. The S-3 is surprisingly nimble, and it's able to survive even in areas where AAW threats exist.

There are three primary ways to find a submarine that does not want to be found. You can listen for sounds, you can find it magnetically (something like the way compa.s.s needles find north), or you can locate a surfaced sub with radar. Since sound waves can travel a long way underwater, a sub's most important "signature" is acoustic. But how can an aircraft noisily zooming through the sky listen for a submarine gliding beneath the waves? The answer, developed during World War II, is the son.o.buoy. This is an expendable float with a battery-powered radio and a super-sensitive microphone. "Pa.s.sive" son.o.buoys simply listen. "Active" son.o.buoys add a noise-makerthat sends out sound waves in hope of creating an echo. By dropping a pattern of son.o.buoys and monitoring them, an ASW aircraft can spread a wide net to catch the faint sounds of the sub's machinery, or even the terrifying "transient" of a torpedo or missile launch.

Another detectable submarine signature is magnetism. Since most submarines are made of steel, they create a tiny distortion of the earth's magnetic field as they move.55 The distortion is The distortion is very very small, but it is detectable. A "magnetic anomaly detector" (MAD) can sense this signature, but it is so weak that the aircraft must practically fly directly over the sub at low alt.i.tude to do so. small, but it is detectable. A "magnetic anomaly detector" (MAD) can sense this signature, but it is so weak that the aircraft must practically fly directly over the sub at low alt.i.tude to do so.56 In order to isolate the MAD from the plane's own electromagnetic field, it is mounted on the end of a long, retractable "stinger" at the tail of the aircraft. In order to isolate the MAD from the plane's own electromagnetic field, it is mounted on the end of a long, retractable "stinger" at the tail of the aircraft.

Eventually, every submarine must come to periscope depth to communicate, snorkel, or just take a quick look around. Although periscope, snorkel, and communications masts are usually treated with radar-absorbing material, at close range sufficiently powerful and sensitive radar may obtain a fleeting detection. Finally, there are more conventional means of detection. For example, an airborne receiver and direction finder may pick up a sub's radio signals, if it is foolish or unlucky enough to transmit when an enemy is listening. And sometimes the telltale "feather" from a mast can be seen visually or through an FLIR system.

The integrated ASW package of the initial version of the Viking, the S-3A, was designed to exploit all of these possible detection signatures. Sixty launch tubes for son.o.buoys are located in the underside of the rear fuselage. In addition, the designers provided the ASQ-81 MAD system, an APS-116 surface search radar, a FLIR system, a pa.s.sive ALR-47 ESM system to detect enemy radars, and the computer systems that tie all of these together. Once a submarine has been found, it is essential that all efforts be made to kill it. To this end, the S-3 was not designed to be just be a hunter; it was also a killer. An internal weapons bay can accommodate up to four Mk. 46 torpedoes or a variety of bombs, depth charges, and mines. Two wing pylons can also be fitted to carry additional weapons, rocket pods, flare launchers, auxiliary fuel tanks, or a refueling "buddy store."

All this made the S-3A one of the best sub-hunting aircraft in the world, which was good enough in its first decade of service. By 1981, though, the -A model Viking clearly needed improvement in light of the growth in numbers and capabilities of the Soviet submarine fleet. In particular, the improved quieting of the Russian boats made hunting even more of a challenge. In order to improve the S-3's avionics, son.o.buoy, ESM and radar data processing, and weapons, a conversion program was started. The result was the S-3B, which upgraded basic -A model airframes to the new standard. The first S-3Bs began to arrive in the fleet in 1987, and they quickly showed both their new sea control abilities and capability to fire AGM-84 Harpoon antis.h.i.+p missiles. This is the version that serves today.

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The prototype ES-3A Shadow on a test flight. The sixteen Shadows provided the fleet with electronic reconnaissance and surveillance services until recently.

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

One of the original hopes for the S-3 was to provide a basic airframe for a number of other aircraft types. Unfortunately, the small production run of the Viking has limited its opportunities for other roles. A small number of early S-3As were modified by removing all the ASW equipment and fittings for armament, allowing them to carry urgent cargo and mail and providing seats for a crew of three and up to six pa.s.sengers (with minimal comfort). Designated US-3A and possessing a much longer range than the normal C-2A Greyhound COD aircraft, a total of five served in the Pacific fleet until they were recently retired. A dedicated tanker version, the KS-3A, was tested in 1980, but never went into production.

The single most important variant was the ES-3A "Shadow," an electronic surveillance (ESM) and signals intelligence (SIGINT) platform, which replaced the venerable EKA-3B "Electric Whale." Externally, the Shadow is quite distinctive, with a prominent dorsal hump and a retractable radome. About 3,000 lb/1,360 kg of ASW gear was removed and 6,000 lb/2,721 kg of electronics were packed into the weapons bay. While the Shadow is unarmed, it can also carry external fuel tanks and "buddy" refueling stores. Sixteen of these aircraft are split between two squadrons: VQ-5 (the "Sea Shadows") in the Pacific Fleet and VQ-6 (the "Ravens") in the Atlantic. Detachments of two or three aircraft normally deploy with every carrier air group, providing ESM, SIGINT, and OTH support for the CVBG. Unfortunately, recent budget cuts have targeted the shadow community which appears to be headed for disestablishment. Plan on seeing the ES-3 head for the boneyard in 1999.

The S-3 community has changed a great deal since the end of the Cold War. As long as the Soviet Union maintained the world's largest submarine fleet, the ASW squadron was an integral part of the carrier air group. But today, that "blue-water" submarine threat has receded. This hardly means that the S-3's can be retired and their crews given pink slips. On the contrary, the VS squadrons have taken on a whole new set of roles and missions, making them more valuable than ever. After the premature retirement of the KA-6D fleet in 1993, they took on still another role, becoming the primary aerial refueling tanker for the CVW. This has not proved to be the best solution to the aerial refueling problem, since an S-3B can only off-load about 8,000 lb/3,628 kg of fuel, as compared to over 24,000 lb/10,886 kg for the KA-6D. With the thirsty F/A-18's needing at least 4,000 lb/1,814 kg every time they go on a long CAP or strike mission, even the ES-3 Shadows are being used as tankers! To reflect all this, the previous ASW designation of their squadrons has been changed to "Sea Control," which uses the "VS" nomenclature.

The S-3B community currently includes ten operational squadrons, administratively divided between two Sea Control Wings: one for the Atlantic Fleet and one for the Pacific. A single Fleet Replacement Squadron, VS-41, based at North Island NAS, California, serves as the advanced training unit. During Operation Desert s.h.i.+eld and Desert Storm, S-3 squadrons flew maritime patrols to help enforce sanctions against Iraq. In fact, the only complaint I've ever heard about this wonderful aircraft is that the Navy bought too few of them. Another two hundred would have been invaluable today, but the poor choices on the part of naval aviation leaders scuttled that idea. At the end of 1997, about 120 S-3's remained in service. Eventually, all of their tasks will be taken over by the future Common Support Aircraft that is scheduled to enter service around 2015.

Sikorsky H-60 Seahawk: A Family of Winners Fixed-wing aircraft that hunt submarines on the prowl have one major vice: They move too fast. One solution is to use an aircraft that can stand still, dip a sonar into the water, and just listen for a while, the way a surface s.h.i.+p or submarine can. Then, if needed, it can rapidly dash to another spot, and do it all again. In other words, you need ASW helicopters. The Germans were the first to use helicopters for this purpose. During World War II they used them to hunt Russian submarines in the Baltic Sea. Following the war, it was only a matter of time and technological development until a true ASW helicopter was developed. After several false starts in the 1950's, Sikorsky developed the SH-3 Sea King. One of the finest helicopters ever built, it was equipped with a dipping sonar and homing torpedoes, and had plenty of range and power. However, by the mid-1970's it was clear that the old SH-3 was heading into its last legs as the USN's premier sub-hunting helicopter.

Meanwhile, the USN had operated another fleet of ASW choppers, so-called "light" helicopters, which can operate off small platforms on escort s.h.i.+ps. Starting in the late-1960's, this mission was filled by the Kaman SH-2 Seasprite LAMPS I (Light Airborne Multi-Purpose System). For three decades ,SH-2's have operated off the Navy's smallest s.h.i.+ps (such as the now-retired Knox-cla.s.s Knox-cla.s.s (FF-1052) frigates), and are still being produced for foreign navies. While the SH-2 was a good start, it lacked the range and payload to hunt front-line Soviet submarines. The Navy wanted a LAMPS helicopter that could hunt the new generation of Soviet submarines coming into service, and began development in the early 1970s. (FF-1052) frigates), and are still being produced for foreign navies. While the SH-2 was a good start, it lacked the range and payload to hunt front-line Soviet submarines. The Navy wanted a LAMPS helicopter that could hunt the new generation of Soviet submarines coming into service, and began development in the early 1970s.

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In 1977, the Navy awarded a contract to IBM Federal Systems and Sikorsky to build a new light ASW helicopter system called Light Airborne Multi-Purpose System-Mark III (LAMPS III).57 The helicopter itself was called the SH-60B Seahawk. The SH-60B was developed from Sikorsky's UH-60 Blackhawk transport helicopter, which had recently won the Army's compet.i.tion to replace the venerable UH-1 "Huey." The helicopter itself was called the SH-60B Seahawk. The SH-60B was developed from Sikorsky's UH-60 Blackhawk transport helicopter, which had recently won the Army's compet.i.tion to replace the venerable UH-1 "Huey."58 This saved a lot of development money for the Navy and gave them an airframe with excellent growth potential. This saved a lot of development money for the Navy and gave them an airframe with excellent growth potential.

Equipped with son.o.buoys, MAD, radar, and other detection gear, the SH-60B would be the helicopter equivalent of the S-3B for escort s.h.i.+ps. The LAMPS III birds would be based aboard the new generation of Ticonderoga- Ticonderoga-cla.s.s (CG-47) Aegis cruisers, Spruance Spruance (DD-963) and (DD-963) and Kidd-cla.s.s Kidd-cla.s.s (DDG-993) destroyers, and (DDG-993) destroyers, and Oliver Hazard Oliver Hazard Perry-cla.s.s (FFG-7) frigates. These s.h.i.+ps were being designed with enlarged helicopter hangars and landing platforms, and a combat center with two-way data links to process information from the SH- 60's...o...b..ard sensors. When they first deployed in 1984, the LAMPS III-CAPABLE s.h.i.+ps were the most powerful ASW escorts in the world. In a task force or convoy, they would form an "outer zone" barrier against any submarines trying to attack. Perry-cla.s.s (FFG-7) frigates. These s.h.i.+ps were being designed with enlarged helicopter hangars and landing platforms, and a combat center with two-way data links to process information from the SH- 60's...o...b..ard sensors. When they first deployed in 1984, the LAMPS III-CAPABLE s.h.i.+ps were the most powerful ASW escorts in the world. In a task force or convoy, they would form an "outer zone" barrier against any submarines trying to attack.

Meanwhile, it was time to replace the SH-3, the protectors of the "inner zone" of ASW defenses for the CVBG. Once the SH-60Bs had been well launched, it was a logical jump to build a Sea King replacement from the existing Seahawk airframe. In 1985 the USN contracted with Sikorsky for development and production of seventy-four "CV-Helo" versions of the H-60. They would be equipped with a new lightweight dipping sonar and some avionics improvements over the earlier-B-model Seahawks. These improvements came at a price, however: the loss of most of the LAMPS equipment, including the son.o.buoy launchers and data links. The new SH-60F came into service in 1989, and began to replace the elderly SH-3's aboard the carriers. At this same time, in response to- an ongoing initiative to expand the special warfare capabilities of the USN, another H-60 variant went into development. The HH-60H version of the Seahawk provided a whole new range of capabilities for battle groups commanders, including Combat Search and Rescue (CSAR) and the covert insertion and retrieval of Special Forces like the famous Sea-Air-Land (SEAL) teams.

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An HH-60G special operations/SAR helicopter landing on the deck of the USS George Was.h.i.+ngton George Was.h.i.+ngton (CVN-73). (CVN-73).

JOHN D. GRESHAM.

Having three aircraft all based upon the same H-60 airframe has saved lots of scarce naval aviation dollars. All share the same 1,690-horsepower General Electric T700 turboshaft engines, as well as a common rotor system (with a diameter of 53 feet, 8 inches/16.4 meters) and transmission. In fact, the primary differences between the -B, -F, and -H versions are in the various mission-equipment packages. With an overall length of 64 feet, 10 inches/ 19.75 meters, height of 17 feet/5.2 meters, and maximum gross weight of 21, 884 lb/9,908 kg, the Seahawk is a compact and nimble aircraft. It handles well on wet, rolling decks, even those of small escort s.h.i.+ps. To a.s.sist s.h.i.+ps' crews in handling, Seahawks have a cable system called RAST (Recovery, a.s.sist, Secure, and Traversing), allowing s.h.i.+ps' crews to haul it down safely in heavy seas. Developed from the Canadian "Beartrap" system, RAST has a tracked receiver on the helicopter platform, which "captures" a small cable hanging from the bottom of the helicopter. Once the receiver has snagged the cable, the helicopter is hauled down, and then towed into the s.h.i.+p's hangar.

The armament of the Seahawks, while limited, is well tailored for their a.s.signed missions. The normal weapons load for the ASW versions is a pair of Mk. 46 or Mk. 50 lightweight torpedoes. Extra fuel tanks can also be carried to extend the Seahawk's range. The -B model is also equipped to fire the Norwegian-built AGM-119 Penguin Mk. 2 Mod. 7 ASM. With a range of up to 18 nm/33 km and a pa.s.sive infrared seeker, it can take out a patrol boat or small escort s.h.i.+p, even in close proximity to a sh.o.r.eline or neutral s.h.i.+pping traffic. All the variants of the Seahawk can be fitted with light machine guns, and have rescue hoists for hauling in downed air crews or other personnel.

The various models of Seahawk have helped maintain the sometimes-dicey peace in the post-Cold War world. In the Persian Gulf, for instance, LAMPS III birds have been monitoring maritime traffic and the maritime embargo of military materials into Iraq. At the same time, the -F models have kept a wary eye on the three Project 877/Kilo-cla.s.s diesel boats of the Iranian Navy, and -H model Seahawks have been transporting inspection teams to s.h.i.+ps and conducting CSAR missions. Seahawks have been active in supporting our operations in Bosnia as well. In fact, you probably could not even operate a modern USN task force without Seahawks. This is emphasized by the continuing popularity of the H-60 to export customers around the world. So far, Spain, j.a.pan, Australia, and Taiwan have all bought their own versions of the Seahawk to operate off various cla.s.ses of escort.

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A cutaway view of a Raytheon BGM-109 Tomahawk Land Attack Missile.

JACK RYAN ENTERPRISES, LTD., BY LAURA DENINNO.

The future of the Seahawk community is looking decidedly upbeat these days, mostly due to the modernization plan that has recently been announced. Shortly, the two hundred or so surviving -B, -F, and -H-model Seahawks will be sent back to the Sikorsky factory in Stratford, Connecticut, to be remanufactured to a common SH-60R standard. All Seahawks will now carry the LAMPS III and -F sensor packages (both son.o.buoys and dipping sonar), as well as improved engines and avionics. This upgrade should make it possible for the -R Seahawks to last into the 21 st century until the next generation of sea control helicopter is designed.

Unfortunately, the use of the HH-60H airframes to produce -R-model birds will create a shortfall for the CSAR/special operations force. At the same time, the elderly fleet of UH-46 Sea Knight Vertical Replenishment (VERTREP) helicopters is about to fall out of the sky from wear and tear. Recognizing this, the Navy has ordered the development and production of an entirely new model of Seahawk, the CH-60, which will take over the CSAR/special operations duties previously a.s.signed to the -H model, as well as the VERTREP mission of the Sea Knight. The first prototype is currently flying, and low-rate production has been approved for up to two hundred of the CH-60 variants. First deliveries to the fleet will begin in FY-1999.

Raytheon BGM-109 Tomahawk: The "Other" Strike Aircraft Not all the aircraft that fly from the CVBG are manned. Another strike weapon available to battle group commanders for hitting targets ash.o.r.e is the BGM-109 Tomahawk cruise missile. The Tomahawk is an all-weather submarine- or s.h.i.+p-launched land-attack cruise missile, with a variety of warheads. Stowed in vertical launch tubes or containers, it can be launched from long range, and can strike with pinpoint precision (less than three meters/ten feet from the aimpoint). In the U.S. Fleet, everyone calls it the TLAM (p.r.o.nounced "tea-lamb"), which is an acronym for Tomahawk Land Attack Missile, to distinguish it from the discontinued TASM, or Tomahawk Anti-s.h.i.+p Missile. Conceived in the 1970's for a nuclear "Doomsday" scenario, TLAM has been reborn in the '90's as the the big stick of U.S. policy. big stick of U.S. policy.

TLAM looks rather like a cigar with stubby pop-out wings and tail fins. A solid-fuel booster rocket (which is attached to the rear of the missile and looks like an oversized coffee can) hurls the missile out of its launch canister/ container. TLAM is 18 feet, 3 inches/5.6 meters long (20 feet, 6 inches/6.25 meters with the booster), 20.4 inches/51.8 cm in diameter (it fits inside a standard 21-in/533mm torpedo tube), has a deployed wingspan of 8 feet, 9 inches/2.7 meters, and weighs 2,650 lb/1,192.5 kg (3,200 1b/1,440 kg with the booster). It flies at a speed of approximately Mach .75/550 kn/880 kph, and has a range of 870 nm/1,000 mi/1,610 km for the basic land-attack version. The standard payload for a TLAM is a 1,000-lb/454-kg-cla.s.s "unitary" warhead that has blast, fragmentary, and penetration effects. There are also versions with other types of warheads, including small submunitions for use on area targets like SAM sites and airfields. TLAMs are not as stealthy as F-117's or B-2's, but they are still almost undetectable by an enemy, thanks to the missile's small radar cross-section and low-alt.i.tude flight path.59 And because the turbofan engine emits very little heat energy, infrared detection is no easier. And because the turbofan engine emits very little heat energy, infrared detection is no easier.

The current TLAM inventory has a complex family tree of variants and modifications, extending through three distinct generations or "Blocks." These are distinguished mainly by the different guidance and warhead systems shown in the table below: BGM-109 Tomahawk Variant Chart [image]

The launch of a BGM-109 Tomahawk Land Attack Missile (TLAM) from the Aegis cruiser USS s.h.i.+loh s.h.i.+loh (CG-67) during Operation Desert Strike in 1996. Cruise missiles like the Tomahawk are frequently integrated with manned airstrikes to help suppress enemy air defenses. (CG-67) during Operation Desert Strike in 1996. Cruise missiles like the Tomahawk are frequently integrated with manned airstrikes to help suppress enemy air defenses.

OFFICIAL U.S. NAVYPHOTO.

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The nuclear-armed TLAM-N was taken out of service by a Presidential executive order shortly after the end of the Cold War in 1991. Similarly, the collapse of the Soviet Fleet at the end of that conflict meant that the long-range (greater than 300 nm/555 km) antis.h.i.+pping capabilities of the TASM were no longer required. Following their withdrawal from service, the TLAM-N and TASM airframes were remanufactured into new Block III missiles (the Navy often does this with so-called "legacy" systems). The Block III missiles have been recently given the new BDU-36B penetrating warhead, with a case composed of highly reactive t.i.tanium for penetrating a good thickness of reinforced concrete, as well as exceptional incendiary effects. In about a hundred of the Block IIIs, there is also a one-way satellite data link that at various times during the flight sends updates on the missile's status and position back to the firing units and command centers. The Block III's precision navigational systems use a combination of guidance modes to give them the same kind of accuracy (less than three meters/ten feet from the aim point) as an LGB.

When a Tomahawk is launched, the Mk. 111 rocket booster fires, thrusting it vertically into the air (after burnout, the booster is discarded). The wings and guidance fins are then deployed and a cover plate is blown off the inlet duct of the tiny Williams International F107-WR-402 turbofan engine. The F107 burns a special high-energy, high-density liquid fuel called JP-8, which gives it more range per gallon than normal JP-5. As soon as the missile has stabilized, it begins to fly a preprogrammed route to its first navigational waypoint just prior to landfall. Once over land, the missile flies along its programmed flight path to the target. Most of the time, the flight path is monitored by an inertial guidance system, which senses the drift from winds and small flight errors. In order to compensate for any "drift" in the inertial system itself, the TLAM utilizes a system called Terrain Contour Mapping (TERCOM) to match the terrain below with data from pre-surveyed strips of land stored in the missile's computer. Should the flight path deviate from the planned course, it will be corrected, and the missile will continue to the next TERCOM strip.60 When the missile reaches the target area, the precision Digital Scene Matching Area Correlation (DSMAC) system takes control. This utilizes a downward-looking infrared camera with an infrared illumination system (for consistent lighting at night) that matches up features on the ground and makes any necessary corrections to the missile's flight path. Though the DSMAC system does not actually "home" onto the target, it does provide enough accuracy to fly a TLAM through the goalpost uprights on a football field. In order to improve the existing Inertial/TERCOM/DSMAC guidance package, a GPS receiver has been installed in the new Block III missiles. In the event of a rapidly planned strike, GPS eliminates the need for TERCOM maps; and with GPS, the atomic clocks aboard the satellites provide a precision Time-of-Arrival (TOA) control capability. Using this, the missile's arrival at the target can be timed to the second. Once the TLAM is over the target area, the missile's job is to put the payload onto the desired target. It can fly or dive into the impact point (a bunker or building), explode over a "soft" target (such as an aircraft or radar), or spread a load of submunitions over a desired area.

While the existing stockpile of Block II and III TLAMs are capable of doing a fine job, there are plans to make them even better. Admiral Johnson would like to drive the cost of TLAM strike missiles down, and the way to manufacture them more cheaply is to re-engineer the design to take advantage of new structures, materials, and computer/software advances. This proposed TLAM variant is the so-called "Tactical Tomahawk," which would probably cost around $575,000 a copy. Tactical Tomahawk would be equipped with a two-way satellite data link, which would allow it to be re-targeted in flight. The new TLAM will also be equipped with a camera system, allowing the missiles to conduct their own damage a.s.sessments. Expect to see this new variant in the a few years.

One of the prototype/preproduction F/A-18 Super Hornets during a test flight. The Super Hornet will replace early-model F-14 Tomcats in the early 21st century.

BOEING MILITARY SYSTEMS.

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Once upon a time, the TLAM filled naval aviators with anxieties. They feared that the Tomahawk had "This machine wants your job!" written on the side. But their fears have faded, and today most of them view the TLAM the way a hunter sees his favorite hunting dog-good and faithful beasts that are willing to go places where human beings should not go, and do things that human beings really should not do. Still, naval aviators like to joke that in the next war no more Navy Crosses will be handed out; the cruise missiles will have hit the really difficult targets! Every bomb carries a political message. Today, TLAM is probably America's most effective bomb-carrying political messenger. The "Gunboat Diplomacy" of the 19th century has become "Tomahawk Diplomacy" in the 20th and 21st.

The Future: Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet The shortcomings of the existing F/A-18 Hornet are well understood, and have long caused Naval aviators to wish for their resolution. Meanwhile, the 1993 retirement of the A-6E/KA-6D fleet and the failure to produce a replacement for it have meant that NAVAIR has been hard pressed to get any any kind of new aircraft onto U.S. carrier decks. At one point the feeling seemed to be that since the Navy was unable to produce kind of new aircraft onto U.S. carrier decks. At one point the feeling seemed to be that since the Navy was unable to produce new new aircraft, perhaps it might be able to field a highly modified one. Back in 1991, the Navy leaders.h.i.+p decided to build an upgraded version of the Hornet, which would replace the F-14 and early versions of the F/A-18. This redesigned F/A-18 would (hopefully!) resolve the Hornet's fuel-fraction problem as well as other shortcomings and provide an interim aircraft until a more advanced and suitable long-term solution to the Navy's aircraft procurement need could be developed. Thus was born the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, the key to the Navy's current naval aviation upgrade plan. aircraft, perhaps it might be able to field a highly modified one. Back in 1991, the Navy leaders.h.i.+p decided to build an upgraded version of the Hornet, which would replace the F-14 and early versions of the F/A-18. This redesigned F/A-18 would (hopefully!) resolve the Hornet's fuel-fraction problem as well as other shortcomings and provide an interim aircraft until a more advanced and suitable long-term solution to the Navy's aircraft procurement need could be developed. Thus was born the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, the key to the Navy's current naval aviation upgrade plan.

As planned, the F/A-18E (single seat) and -F (two-seat trainer) are more than just -C/D models with minor improvements. They are in fact brand-new airframes, with less than 30% commonality with the older Hornets. The airframe itself has been enlarged to accommodate the internal fuel load that was lacking in the earlier F/A-18's. With a fuel fraction of around .3 (as opposed to the .23 of the earlier Hornets), much of the range/endurance problems of the earlier birds should be resolved. The twin engines are new General Electric F414-GE-400's, which will each now deliver 22,000 lb/9,979 kg of thrust in afterburner. There is also a new wing, with enough room for an extra weapons pylon inboard of the wing fold line on each side, which should help resolve some of the complaints about the Hornet's weapons load. To ensure that the Super Hornet can land safely with a heavier fuel/weapons load than earlier F/A-18's, the airframe structure and landing gear have also been strengthened. Since most of the-E/F's weapons load is planned to be expensive PGMs, which must be brought back if not expended, this is essential.

The Super Hornet will also be the first USN aircraft to make use of radar and infrared signature-reduction technologies. Most of the work in this area can be seen in the modified engine inlets, which have been squared off to reduce their signature and coated with radar-absorbing material. This should greatly increase the survivability and penetration capabilities of the new bird.

Finally, the Super Hornet will be the first naval aircraft to carry a new generation of electronic-countermeasures gear including the ALE-50, a towed decoy system that is proving highly effective in tests against the newest threats in the a.r.s.enals of our potential enemies.

To back up the new airframe and engines, the avionics of the new Hornet will be among the best in the world. The radar will be the same APG- 73 fitted to the late-production models of the F/A-18C/D. An even newer radar, based on the same fixed-phased-array technology as the APG-77 on the USAF's F-22A Raptor, is under development as well. To replace the sometimes troublesome Nighthawk pod, Hughes has recently been selected to develop a third-generation FLIR/targeting system for the Super Hornet, which will give it the best targeting resolution of any strike aircraft in the world.

The c.o.c.kpit, designed again by the incomparable Eugene Adam and his team, will have a mix of "gla.s.s" MFDs (in full color!), and an improved user interface for the pilot. One part of this will be a helmet-mounted sighting system for use with the new AIM-9X version of the Sidewinder AAM. Other weapons will include the current array of iron ordnance and PGMs, as well as the new GBU-29/30/31/32 JDAMS, AGM-154 JSOW, and AGM-84E SLAM-ER cruise missile.

There will also be provisions for the Super Hornet to carry larger external drop tanks as well as the same "buddy" refueling store used by the S-3/ES-3 to tank other aircraft.

All this capability comes at a cost, though. At a maximum gross weight of some 66,000 lb/29,937 kg, the Super Hornet will weigh more than any other aircraft on a flight deck, including the F-14 Tomcat.

When McDonnell Douglas (now part of Boeing Military Aircraft) was given the contract to develop the Super Hornet, they set out to have a high level of commonality with the existing F/A-18 fleet. Early on in the design process, though, it became apparent that only a small percentage of the parts and systems could be carried over to the new bird. Despite this lack of true commonality, the Super Hornet was the only new tactical aircraft in the Navy pipeline, and so the Navy went forward with its development.

Today, the aircraft is well into its test program, with low-rate production approved by Congress.61 At around $58 million a copy (when full production is reached), the Super Hornet will hardly be a bargain ( -C/-D-model Hornets cost about half that). On the other hand, when stacked next to the estimated $158-million-dollar-per-unit cost of the USAF's new F-22A Raptor stealth fighter, the Super Hornet looks like quite a deal! Considering the current budget problems within the Department of Defense, there is a real possibility that one program or the other might be canceled. Since the Super Hornet is already in production (the F-22A has just begun flight tests), it may have an edge in the funding battles ahead. At around $58 million a copy (when full production is reached), the Super Hornet will hardly be a bargain ( -C/-D-model Hornets cost about half that). On the other hand, when stacked next to the estimated $158-million-dollar-per-unit cost of the USAF's new F-22A Raptor stealth fighter, the Super Hornet looks like quite a deal! Considering the current budget problems within the Department of Defense, there is a real possibility that one program or the other might be canceled. Since the Super Hornet is already in production (the F-22A has just begun flight tests), it may have an edge in the funding battles ahead.

If the Super Hornet survives the budget wars, current plans have the Navy buying at least five hundred of them in the next decade. This means they will begin to replace early model F-14As when the first fleet squadron stands up and goes to sea in 2001. Meanwhile, there is advanced work on several Super Hornet derivatives, including a two-seat all-weather strike version (that would restore the lost capabilities of the A-6 Intruder) and an electronic combat version of the F/A-18F (the so-called "Electric Hornet") that would replace the EA-6B Prowler.

The Future: Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) Airmen and other warfighters often get testy when they hear somebody trying to sell them a "joint" project. All too often, "joint" has meant, "Let's pretend to cooperate, so the d.a.m.ned bean-counters and politicians won't slash our pet projects again." One of the longest-running of these joint dreams has looked to find a common airframe that all all the services could use to satisfy their tactical fighter and strike requirements. The newest incarnation of this dream is called the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF). The lure of potential multi-billion-dollar savings from such a program is the basis for the JSF program, which is an attempt to reverse the historic trend of escalating unit cost for combat aircraft. Taxpayer "sticker shock" at the price of aircraft like the F-22 Raptor and F/A-18E/F Super Hornet is threatening to unleash a political backlash against the entire military aeros.p.a.ce complex. Thus the JSF program is aiming for a flyaway cost in the $30-to-$40-million range, for the first time emphasizing affordability rather than maximum performance. the services could use to satisfy their tactical fighter and strike requirements. The newest incarnation of this dream is called the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF). The lure of potential multi-billion-dollar savings from such a program is the basis for the JSF program, which is an attempt to reverse the historic trend of escalating unit cost for combat aircraft. Taxpayer "sticker shock" at the price of aircraft like the F-22 Raptor and F/A-18E/F Super Hornet is threatening to unleash a political backlash against the entire military aeros.p.a.ce complex. Thus the JSF program is aiming for a flyaway cost in the $30-to-$40-million range, for the first time emphasizing affordability rather than maximum performance.

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An artist's concept of the Lockheed Martin Navy variant of the proposed Joint Strike Fighter (JSF).

LOCKHEED MARTIN, FORT WORTH.

The contracting battle for JSF will pit Lockheed Martin against Boeing (newly merged with McDonnell Douglas), with the winner possibly becoming the builder of the last manned tactical aircraft of all time. With a planned buy of some two thousand aircraft, it certainly will be the most expensive combat aircraft program in history. Meanwhile, for this program to succeed, it will have to satisfy four demanding customers-the USAF, the USN, the USMC, and the British Royal Navy. To satisfy these customers, the JSF Program Office envisions a family of three closely related but not totally identical airframes.

The USAF sees JSF as a conventional, multi-role strike fighter to replace the F-16. With many foreign air forces planning to retire their F-16 fleets around 2020, there is a huge potential export market for such an aircraft. In addition, the Marine Corps needs some six hundred STOVL (Short Takeoff/ Vertical Landing) aircraft to replace both the F/A-18C/D Hornet and the AV-8B Harrier. The similar Royal Navy requirement is for just sixty STOVL aircraft to replace the FRS.2 Sea Harriers embarked on their small Invincible- Invincible-cla.s.s (R 05) aircraft carriers. In December of 1995, the United Kingdom signed a memorandum of understanding as a collaborative partner in developing the aircraft with the United States, and is contributing $200 mil