Memorials of the Sea Part 11

It was, in fact, strictly so. The succeeding commander-clever as he might be in other respects, and successful as one, especially, of my Father's training was-had not the superiority in seamans.h.i.+p with which the s.h.i.+p had formerly been managed. The special adaptations, therefore, which my Father had turned to such good account, were now only partially available. Under considerable difficulties in the navigation, or against hard compet.i.tors in the navigators, the once leading s.h.i.+p was liable to fail, and very often did fail. The advantages provided in the adaptation of the s.h.i.+p were, in such cases, lost in the management. But where the navigator, as in my Father's case, was pre-eminently skilful, the adaptations for windward and ice-enc.u.mbered sailing became in the highest degree efficient, and resulted, as has been shown, in an unrivalled superiority.

A commander may sometimes become distinguished in war by successes acquired at an unusual sacrifice of life. His resulting superiority may, in certain cases, be dearly purchased. But there was no such counteracting element in the pre-eminence, as an Arctic navigator, gained by my Father. His deeply ballasted s.h.i.+p might have struck heavier against the ice than others, but she rarely was _allowed_ to strike heavily. Concussions not unfrequently fell to the lot of other s.h.i.+ps, light enough, and free to rebound as they might be, by which, nevertheless, bows or sides were stove in, and heavy expenses in damages consequently incurred; but no such disasters were encountered by him. His s.h.i.+p was wont to be a-head in adventure, navigating the most difficult positions, braving most alarming threatenings of the ices and the wind. But his s.h.i.+p went gallantly amid, and pa.s.sed safely through, all these dangers. He knew precisely what his s.h.i.+p, in difficulties or dangers, _might_ do; and that, under his commanding management, was done, and safely done. If, by the hundred chances which might thwart a difficult operation,-in the perpetual movements of the ice, the varying winds, the mistakes or defects of his helmsman, or the unpromptness of the men in management of the yards and sails,-his intended object or manuvre should happen to be defeated, he was always ready, in his inexhaustible and well-considered resources, to save his s.h.i.+p from the imminent danger which a failure or blunder, in such cases, frequently involved. His quick apprehension of almost every possible contingency, served at once to develop and to bring into timely operation the resources which his fertile talent supplied; whilst his keen discernment of the quality and measure of the various movements of detached pieces or bodies of ice, as unequally acted upon by wind or currents, enabled him so to antic.i.p.ate any probable risks, as to be prepared, however he might be baulked in his princ.i.p.al design, for some other furthering project, or, at all events, for a safe retreat.

The reality of my Father's superiority, as a navigator, now being described, admits, as to me it seems, of conclusive evidence in these two remarkable facts,-that, for the long series of voyages in which he held his first three or four commands, his s.h.i.+p, _in all difficulties where talent could be availing_, always took the lead; and that, for the whole time of his command, wherein he was wont to take the lead, equally in danger as in advanced position, he was always enabled, under the constantly recognised and sought-for blessing of Providence, to pursue his adventurous object safely, or without damage of any essential consideration, to his s.h.i.+p!

Within my own experience, whilst I accompanied him during nine voyages, from a mere child to adult age, I had perpetual opportunities of discerning his superiority over all the compet.i.tors we met with; and, during the same experience, I had repeated occasions for noticing with proud admiration, his wonderful skill in beating to windward amongst intricate ices, so as to leave every s.h.i.+p that we found near us in succession behind. In the morning, perhaps, at the commencement of a progress amid enc.u.mbering ices, I have seen around the Resolution, in various positions, to windward as well as to leeward, a considerable fleet of companion-whalers; and in the evening of the same day, after twelve or fourteen hours efforts in getting to windward, I have been able to see _no_ s.h.i.+p whatever within the limits of vision from the level of the deck. On ascending then to the top-mast head, where the extent of vision became vastly increased; I have generally found the pursuing fleet, bent on the same course, to be far away from us; some s.h.i.+ps being left so much behind, perhaps, as to have disappeared, not from fog, or darkness, but from mere distance to leeward!

This striking feat of skill-differing in degree of course, according to the nature and extent of the navigable interstices of the ice, and the force and direction of the wind, with the sailing qualities of the competing s.h.i.+ps likewise, as well as the seamans.h.i.+p of their commanders-was, as I have intimated, repeatedly performed under my own observation. But the like triumph of superiority was also gained, and that on different occasions within my personal observation, when the competing progress was being made through a compact body of ice into the northern fis.h.i.+ng stations, and where the penetration, in antic.i.p.ation of the general fleet, gained its due reward in an early and superior success.

The voyage of 1806, described in Chapter IV. Section VII., exhibited a striking example of the successful application of this talent; and in that of 1809, the same result was interestingly realized.

We had taken the ice, in the latter case, with the view of penetrating the barrier betwixt the free northern ocean and the fis.h.i.+ng stations in the seventy-ninth and eightieth degree of lat.i.tude, along with a large fleet of other whalers. For some days, whilst no material progress could be made, we remained in varying relative positions presenting but little decided advantage. At length, when circ.u.mstances gave room for the due exercise of talent and perseverance, we made a progress so much beyond that of our a.s.sociates, that we gradually left them, farther and farther, behind us, until the whole of the fleet were out of sight. We thus gained the "northern water" considerably before the others, and, falling in with whales in abundance, soon commenced a most encouraging fishery. By and by, others of the fleet began to make their appearance; and I well remember the astonishment of the captains and men of three s.h.i.+ps which came close up to us on the 5th of June, just as we had taken in our _fourteenth_ whale, whilst they had only obtained six amongst them. One of these s.h.i.+ps had been near us, or in company with us, on the 27th of May, the day on which we succeeded in surmounting the icy-barrier. She, however, had only made the same pa.s.sage the day before this, and had made but trifling progress in the fishery.

As there is no portion of the navigable ocean throughout the globe, at all comparable, as a field for the exercise of superior talent in seamans.h.i.+p, with the ice-enc.u.mbered regions around the poles; so my Father's capabilities in this beautiful practical science, had, at once, the requisite scope for their abundant exercises, and their admirable triumphs.

No matter what the species of manuvre or operation might be, he was equally superior in all. In "making fast" to the ice in gales of wind-an operation of singular difficulty and ofttimes of no small risk,-the manner in which he brought up his s.h.i.+p to the nearest possible proximity with the place of the ice-anchor, afforded time and opportunity for getting out and attaching the mooring hawser, and then, with progressively reduced sails, eased the s.h.i.+p's action on the rope till fairly brought up, head to wind,-was in the highest degree masterly and beautiful. Repet.i.tions of trial, and failure on failure, with much useless toil and re-setting of sails, and, not unfrequently, with very hard blows against the ice, were matters of such perpetual experience among the inferior navigators engaged in the service, as to render the operations we have just attempted to ill.u.s.trate, the more conspicuously admirable.

SECTION II.-_Natural Science._

To my Father's _natural science_, or original, almost intuitive, perception and application of scientific principles, I have already made repeated allusion. But this characteristic of originality, as well as superiority of mind, deserves, I think, more special consideration.

Having to deal with circ.u.mstances perpetually varying, and frequently presenting features entirely new, the profession to which he had devoted himself afforded almost the best possible opportunities for the development and application of this quality of mind. And, in a greater or less degree, every voyage he undertook as commander served to elicit this admirable characteristic. Those who understood him not, very naturally ascribed many of his novel proceedings to eccentricity, and these might be liable to run into this very usual extreme; but, for the most part, the apparent eccentricity was, in reality, a sound result of reflective, philosophical consideration. I might adduce some incidents, perhaps, in which the originality of conception was pushed into an extreme: yet I could recal, possibly, hundreds of others in which such conceptions resulted in proceedings at once admirable, in their fitness, and, as such, worthy of imitation.

1. Take, for example, the process of _sallying_ the ice-bound s.h.i.+p for relieving her of any remediable pressure, and giving free action to the power of wind or "warps" for promoting her progress. And in this we have an adaptation of a previously unapprehended mean and provision, always at hand, possessing extraordinary capabilities as a mechanical force. It may not be uninteresting to elucidate this fact.

Suppose a s.h.i.+p, navigating the Arctic seas, to be held firmly on the sides by the contact of two large sheets, or numerous compacted pieces, of ice.

The ice just a-head may be less compact, or there may be a proximate channel, available for "boring" or sailing, if the existing pressure could be relieved so that the s.h.i.+p might be free to move. For the relief of this _lateral_ pressure, no mechanical force, except the action of the wind on the sails when coming somewhat in the direction of "the beam," had heretofore been considered as available, or had been applied. But my Father's device afforded a novel, as well as a powerfully available, agency. In what degree powerful is easily estimated. The s.h.i.+p, in the case referred to, we will suppose is tolerably flat-sided (like the Resolution), and floats, ordinarily, at the depth of the greatest width. Now the power yielded by sallying may be considered as corresponding with that obtained by a wedge acted on by a heavy weight; the _wedge_, in this case, being the portion of the s.h.i.+p's side that becomes depressed, operating by virtue of the expansion of the s.h.i.+p's _width_ when heeling, and the _force_ acting on the wedge being the weight transferred from an even distribution with an upright position of the s.h.i.+p, to an acc.u.mulation of weight on one side, inducing a heeling position. Let the extent of heeling be considered as a "streak" of nine inches, in which case, as the opposite side will be proportionally and equally raised, the width of the line of flotation will be increased, altogether (in a main breadth of 26 feet), about half an inch, or a quarter inch on either side. The depressed side, then, in its progress under water, as far as nine inches, will have expanded a quarter of an inch in width, and the raised side an equal quant.i.ty; and both sides will act on the contiguous ices with the mechanical force of a wedge of nine inches long and a quarter-inch at the thick end,-exhibiting, on the ordinary mode of calculating the power of the wedge, a gain of power for either side in the proportion of twice the length of the wedge,[O] or 18 inches, to a quarter inch, or as 72 to 1.

The force acting on these wedges is that of the _weight_ of the men employed in sallying, when all are placed on one side of the deck right over the head or back of one of the wedges. In a whaler carrying fifty men, the weight available for this purpose, say that of forty-six or forty-eight of the crew, may be estimated at about three tons, one half of which only would act downward, the other half being expended in the resistance upward, of the opposite side.

Hence the mechanical force hereby derived, as represented by these data, would appear to be that of two wedges of a power of seventy-two to one, each acted on by a weight of a ton and a half, that is, a force of the weight of 108 tons acting towards the separation of the ice and s.h.i.+p on each side. But only half the amount of these two forces, it will be obvious, comes effectively into operation; for the wedges, being on _opposite_ sides of the s.h.i.+p, act antagonistically, thus spending one-half of their power against each other, in the compressing of the opposite sides of the s.h.i.+p together. The force really in operation, then, serving to push off the ice from each side, or tending to separate the compressing ma.s.ses of ice, will be equivalent to two weights of fifty-four or altogether to a weight of 108 tons.

If there were no resistance either from the _friction_ of the ice on the s.h.i.+p's sides, or from the _stability_ of the s.h.i.+p, the estimated mechanical force, for the case a.s.sumed, would no doubt take effect. The resistance from friction cannot, it is evident, be determined; but that of the s.h.i.+p's stability might be easily represented. At the _commencement_ of the heeling position, however, the resistance from this source would be but trifling.

In its actual influence, in ordinary cases, the stability might abstract, perhaps, a quarter or a third part from the entire force exerted, but still leaving a free action equivalent to the weight of seventy or eighty tons towards the separation of the ices, right and left.

But the force ultimately brought into operation, after a sallying motion is once obtained, becomes still greater and more effective,-acting now and then, in the nature of concussion from the momentum of a portion of the s.h.i.+p's weight, as thus may be ill.u.s.trated:-

The weight of the crew, in the outset of the operation, being placed all on one side of the deck, and then suddenly transferred to the other, will, after the overcoming of the friction originally induced by the ice, cause the s.h.i.+p to heel, and, on the reversing of the action (by the men running back again across the deck) the direction of the heeling will be also reversed. The process being carried on with a strict attention to the adjustment of the moment of the running of the men (indicated by the word of command, "over") to the time of change in the natural oscillations of the s.h.i.+p,-these oscillations (supposing the ice to be gradually receding) will increase to a maximum, whilst the incidental concussions of the s.h.i.+p's sides against the contiguous ices will act as a "ram" on the wedge-like expansion of the width of her two broadsides. The additional force thus incidentally applied, it is evident, may be enormous. Hence the wonderful effects sometimes produced by my Father's ingenious device of sallying,-effects not less important and striking when "clawing" to windward of ma.s.ses of ice in boring, when, by the mere action of the wind on the sails the s.h.i.+p may have come to a stand, as when stuck fast betwixt equally compressing ices on both broadsides at once. The moment the sallying is perceived, the s.h.i.+p realises such relief from both pressure and friction, as to start a-head as if acted on by a magical power!

It hardly requires, perhaps, to be explained, that our investigations of the operation of sallying in urging a path through enc.u.mbering ices, are, strictly, only ill.u.s.trative. For the action of the s.h.i.+p's side which we have considered as that of a regular straight wedge is, in reality, curvilinear, and, ordinarily, would be unusually thin at the apex, thus giving, at the commencement of the heeling movement, a much higher degree of mechanical power. The _extent_ of the compression on the s.h.i.+p's sides, too, we could only consider in a particular case, such as one of thin ice, or ice touching the sides to no great depth. In case of compression from thick ice, having contact with the s.h.i.+p's sides to a considerable depth, the resistance to the sallying would, of course, be much increased, and, by consequence, the operation less effective.

It may just be added that the principle of sallying is evidently capable of still more powerful application by aiding the _weight_ of the men, in the first instance of movement, by auxiliary loads of guns, chains, casks, or other heavy bodies transferred to one side of the deck; or, in a still higher degree, by an auxiliary mechanical force derived from a "purchase"

from the s.h.i.+p's lowermast, or top-mast head, to an anchor fixed in a distant part of the ice on either side. An enormous power, it is evident, might be derived from a leverage of this kind, sufficient almost to compress or squeeze in the very timbers of the hull.

2. Another example of the application of the principles of natural science, may be adduced with respect to my Father's practice in the capture of certain harpooned whales. In the most usual habits of the mysticetus, when struck in the Greenland seas, it descends to a considerable depth, generally 600 or 700 fathoms, and, after an interval of about half an hour, or so, returns spontaneously to the surface for respiration. But sometimes, especially when a taught strain has been held on the line, the whale continues to press so determinately into the depths of the ocean that it dies by a process similar to drowning. In that case the heaving up of the capture becomes a matter of great labour and difficulty, and, because of the liability of the harpoon to draw, or of the lines to part, of much uncertainty as to the result. It is a matter, therefore, of much importance to avoid the possible contingency of a harpooned whale "dying down." The process ordinarily adopted for inducing the return of the fish to the surface, after the downward course is suspended, is to haul on the lines as soon as any impression can be produced, so as to stimulate to action and urge an ascending motion. In very many cases this process is effective, but by no means in all. For sometimes so desperate and continuous is the effort to get down that, when necessity might urge a return to the surface for respiration, the power to return no longer remains, and the helpless monster dies at its utmost depression.

My Father, with his peculiar felicity of consideration and device, a.s.sumed a measure of proceeding as _apparently_ unfitting as it was novel in its character. When the usual processes for the obtaining of the fish's return to the surface had failed, and no prospect remained but that it must die where it was, he would throw off the turns of his line round the stem or "loggerhead" of the boat, and allow an extent of fifty or a hundred fathoms more to run freely out and sink in the water.

The meaning of the device was this:-The entangled whale had no doubt descended deep in the water, as its ordinary mode of escaping from its natural enemies; but the attachment and restraint of the line it could not escape from. It was an instinct with it, therefore, as he conceived,-as in the case of some well-known quadrupeds, which may be driven but will not be led,-to resist the restraining force, and to struggle to distance the point from which the restraint proceeds. The untoward effect of this instinct, my Father supposed, might be diverted by rapidly slacking out a large extent of the entangling line, so that it might sink _below_ the place of the fish, and so _draw downward_; for the same instinct which had incited it so perseveringly to dive, might naturally be expected to urge it, under this change of circ.u.mstances, to an upward course.

The experiment on being tried proved, in different cases, successful. The whale, stimulated to a new course by a new direction being given to the restraining line, returned to the surface, where it was received by its waiting a.s.sailants, and, when deprived of its life, became a prompt and easy prize, instead of an uncertain, hard-earned object of pursuit!

3. Besides the cases just recited of aptness in natural science, another occasion is before my recollection in which, during his varied adventures in the whale-fishery, this characteristic of mind, with my Father, was strikingly developed. A large whale had been "struck" on the borders of a vast sheet of ice, denominated a "field," which took refuge beneath the frozen surface, and, after suffering the deprivation of air for a period too considerable for its capabilities of endurance, died there.

After a long interval of patient waiting, on the part of the whalers, for the turning out of the expected capture (for the compactness of a firm field of ice generally obliges the whale to return to the outside for the purpose of respiration), they proceeded to haul on the line to try to facilitate their expectation. But when as much force had been applied as the line might safely bear, their efforts came to a stand. There was no reactive motion indicative of life in the whale, nor any progress towards its withdrawal, if dead.

Various repet.i.tions of a similar effort, after slacking out a quant.i.ty of line to give some change to the direction of the tension, ended in the same discouraging manner; so that a doubt arose whether the harpoon were yet attached to the line, or whether it might have got entangled on some submerged irregularity of the ice.

My Father at length left the s.h.i.+p to give his personal attention to this difficult business. His first care was to examine the line at its fullest tension; but the exact direction was not discoverable because of the thickness of the verge of the ice. Slacking out, therefore, a considerable quant.i.ty of the line, he caused the boat to be backed off to a little distance, and, whilst it was kept off as much as possible by the oars of several boats attached, the line was hauled in, till, becoming nearly horizontal by tension, its direction beneath the ice could be clearly determined. By this direction he traced, by the eye, an imaginary corresponding line on the surface of the ice-field, which, by means of numerous irregularities and hummocks, he was enabled to do satisfactorily,-noticing particularly a very high and conspicuous hummock in this exact direction, and at about the distance to which the quant.i.ty of line run out might be supposed to reach. His next step, and that a truly scientific one, was to try to vary the line of direction, so that he might determine, by the intersection of lines, the position of the harpoon. This he effected by again slacking out the line, but to a much greater extent, and then causing the position of the boat to be changed by rowing slowly in a direction parallel to, and at some distance from, the edge of the ice, until the new direction might make a large angle with that previously determined. Time being allowed for the rope to subside into its position of rest, tension was given to it, as before, and another imaginary line traced by the eye on the ice. My Father now perceived that the point of intersection corresponded very nearly with the position of the remarkable hummock, almost a mile distant, before noticed, and that it must be immediately beyond it.

Taking a whale-lance in his hand he walked over the ice to the place, and _just beyond_ the hummock he found a thin flat surface of much younger ice.

Striking his lance repeatedly into this, he gradually effected its perforation; when, to his no small delight and to the amazement of the men who had followed his steps, his lance struck against a soft and elastic substance beneath:-it was the back of the dead whale!

Aid of hands and instruments being now obtained, the thin sheet of ice was partly cut out and the fragments removed till the attached line could be got at. When effected, it was again slacked out of the boat, and the end firmly secured to the slender part of the body of the fish adjoining the tail. The two lobes of the tail were then partly cut off, so as to hang down in the water as sustained by a slight attachment, and thus by their gravity to help to sink the carca.s.s whilst they no longer were calculated to catch the irregularities of the submerged surface of the ice, as the tail, when perfect in structure and position, had previously done. A considerable weight, I believe, in sand-bags, was also hung upon the "bight" of the line for helping to sink the fish clear of obstructions above, and, finally, the line being hauled on in the boat from whence the fish had been originally harpooned, it progressively yielded to the force applied, and in due time the loud and cheerful huzzas of the sailors announced the completion of the capture in its appearance outside!

SECTION III.-_Improvements and Inventions._

We have had occasion, in the course of our memorial records, to describe several important inventions or improvements of my Father's in connection with his professional occupations. There remain yet to be mentioned a variety of other contributions, of a like order, to Greenland apparatus or operations pertaining to the fishery, and also to objects of public consideration generally.

As to whale-fis.h.i.+ng apparatus and operations, his contributions in the form of new contrivances and improvements were numerous, and, many of them, of considerable importance. These, we shall not attempt to describe in any measure of detail, but chiefly in the manner of notices.

In the stowage of his s.h.i.+p, for the economising of s.p.a.ce and facilitating the depositing of cargo, his improvements were valuable.

His _casks_ he had built on a plan adapted for the accurate filling of the s.p.a.ce in the "hold," comprising special deviations from the general size and form in the introduction of large "leagers" for the mids.h.i.+ps (on the kelson), adjusted, in length, to the exact s.p.a.ces of the stantions of the hold beams, as also of narrow, short, or irregularly formed casks for the extremities of the hold, fore and aft.

The _deck_ on the hold beams, instead of being laid, as usual, in a continuous series of planks, was cut up into hatches, and laid level betwixt the beams, so as, whilst forming a flat and even platform when laid down, to open out the hold, on the removal of the hatch-like planking, without other inc.u.mbrance against the stowing and filling of the casks beneath, except the naked beams and their essential fastenings.

In the suspension of the _boats_, with regard to facility in lowering or hoisting, as well as for safety, his improvements were of great importance.

It had been the practice in whale s.h.i.+ps' equipments, to suspend the boats, usually seven in number, in double tiers at both _quarters_, one at the "waist," on each side, and one over the stern. The arrangements for these objects were at once clumsy and incommodious. In place of the huge lofty beams across the quarter-deck, from the extremities of which were suspended the four "quarter boats," my Father subst.i.tuted compact, but lofty oak "davits," which, with their a.s.sociate "skids" (upright timbers against which the sides of the boats press and slide), were removable when not required. For the double tier at the quarters, he subst.i.tuted an additional length of boats over the main chains, thus const.i.tuting an even running series of three lengths of boats, having the advantage of great facility in being lowered or hoisted, as well as a much improved security against accidents in the pa.s.sing of hummocks of ice, or from the sea in gales of wind, to which the _lower_ quarter-boats, on the old plan of suspension, were frequently exposed.

In _fis.h.i.+ng_ and other _apparatus_, my Father made various improvements. In the harpoon, the improvement consisted mainly in the mode of keeping it in condition for use,-_bright_ and _clean_ as well as sharp; but in the lance he altered the form of the blade, which had usually been sharp-pointed and only moderately hardened, for a somewhat rounded point and a better quality of steel with greater hardness,-the advantage of which was, that if striking against a bone, the point was not liable to be fixed by its deep penetration, nor to be turned up or broken, as often happened, by the collision.

Some of the "flensing" apparatus, and one or two of the instruments used in "making-off" the blubber, he variously modified and improved, subst.i.tuting for some very clumsy contrivances employed in the latter operation, compact and well-adapted instruments.

The _ice-drill_, a handy and very effective instrument for setting an _ice-anchor_, was his contrivance, being a great improvement upon the old _ice-axe_.

The talent for contrivance and improvement, as thus practically evinced, was by no means limited in its exercises to subjects of a mere professional nature. The town and harbour of Whitby, with regard to some important modern improvements, have reaped conspicuous benefits from my Father's suggestions.

His views on various matters of improvement in the town and harbour, with their respective approaches, were first put forward in a pamphlet which he published in the winter of 1816-17; and in 1826, about three years after his retirement from the sea, the substance of the original pamphlet, revised, extended, and ill.u.s.trated by engraved plans, was again brought out under the t.i.tle of "An Essay on the Improvement of the Town and Harbour of Whitby, with its Streets and neighbouring Highways; designed also for the Maintenance of the labouring Cla.s.ses who are out of Employment."