On Food And Cooking Part 59

Moderately strong, not very elastic Moderately strong, not very elastic

Spelt, soft

15 15.

Strong, moderately elastic Strong, moderately elastic

Wheat Gluten Gluten in Wheat Flour Doughs Wheat has long been the West's premier grain primarily because its storage proteins have unique chemical properties. When flour is mixed with water, the gluten proteins bond to each other and form an elastic ma.s.s that can expand to accommodate gas bubbles produced by yeast. Without wheat, then, we would not have raised breads, cakes, and pasta as we know them. Gluten quant.i.ty and quality vary significantly among different wheats, and determine the uses to which a given type is put. Wheat has long been the West's premier grain primarily because its storage proteins have unique chemical properties. When flour is mixed with water, the gluten proteins bond to each other and form an elastic ma.s.s that can expand to accommodate gas bubbles produced by yeast. Without wheat, then, we would not have raised breads, cakes, and pasta as we know them. Gluten quant.i.ty and quality vary significantly among different wheats, and determine the uses to which a given type is put.

Gluten as a Separate Ingredient Because they're both cohesive and insoluble in water, the gluten proteins are easily separated from the rest of the flour: you simply make a dough, then knead it in water. The starch and water-soluble substances wash away, and tough, chewy gluten remains. Gluten as a unique food ingredient was discovered by Chinese noodle makers around the 6th century, and by the 11th was known as Because they're both cohesive and insoluble in water, the gluten proteins are easily separated from the rest of the flour: you simply make a dough, then knead it in water. The starch and water-soluble substances wash away, and tough, chewy gluten remains. Gluten as a unique food ingredient was discovered by Chinese noodle makers around the 6th century, and by the 11th was known as mien chin, mien chin, or the "muscle of flour." (The j.a.panese call it or the "muscle of flour." (The j.a.panese call it seitan. seitan.) When cooked, concentrated gluten does develop a chewy, slippery texture like that of meats from animal muscle. Mien chin Mien chin became a major ingredient in the vegetarian cooking that developed in Buddhist monasteries; there are recipes dating from the 11th century for imitation venison and jerky, and for fermented gluten. Because gluten contains a high proportion of glutamic acid, fermentation breaks it down into a condiment that was an early version of savory-tasting MSG (p. 342). One of the simplest ways to prepare gluten is to pinch off small bits and deep-fry them; they puff up into light chewy b.a.l.l.s that readily absorb the flavor from a sauce. Today gluten is widely available and used to make a variety of vegetarian "meats." became a major ingredient in the vegetarian cooking that developed in Buddhist monasteries; there are recipes dating from the 11th century for imitation venison and jerky, and for fermented gluten. Because gluten contains a high proportion of glutamic acid, fermentation breaks it down into a condiment that was an early version of savory-tasting MSG (p. 342). One of the simplest ways to prepare gluten is to pinch off small bits and deep-fry them; they puff up into light chewy b.a.l.l.s that readily absorb the flavor from a sauce. Today gluten is widely available and used to make a variety of vegetarian "meats."

Notable Wheat Preparations Whole grains of wheat, often called wheat berries, are usually sold with their bran fully intact, and can take an hour or more to cook unless presoaked. Farro is now available with part of its bran milled away - similar to partly milled pigmented rice and wild rice - and cooks much more quickly, while retaining the stronger flavor and integrity of separate grains provided by the bran. Whole grains of wheat, often called wheat berries, are usually sold with their bran fully intact, and can take an hour or more to cook unless presoaked. Farro is now available with part of its bran milled away - similar to partly milled pigmented rice and wild rice - and cooks much more quickly, while retaining the stronger flavor and integrity of separate grains provided by the bran.

Wheat germ is sometimes added to baked goods or other foods; it is a good source of protein (20% by weight), oil (10%), and fiber (13%). Wheat bran is mainly fiber, with about 4% oil. Their oil content makes both bran and germ susceptible to developing stale flavors. They're best stored in the refrigerator.

Bulgur Bulgur or burghul is an ancient preparation of wheat - usually durum - that's still popular in North Africa and the Middle East. It's made by cooking whole grains in water, drying them so that the interior becomes gla.s.sy and hard, then moistening them to toughen the outer bran layer, and finally pounding or milling to remove the bran and germ and leave the endosperm in coa.r.s.e chunks. It's the wheat version of parboiled rice (p. 473). The result is a nutritious form of wheat that keeps indefinitely and cooks relatively quickly. Coa.r.s.e bulgur (to 3.5 mm across) is used much as rice or couscous is, boiled or steamed to go with a moist dish or made into a pilaf or a salad, while fine bulgur (0.52 mm) is made into falafel (deep-fried b.a.l.l.s of bulgur and fava-bean flour), and various pudding-like sweets. Bulgur or burghul is an ancient preparation of wheat - usually durum - that's still popular in North Africa and the Middle East. It's made by cooking whole grains in water, drying them so that the interior becomes gla.s.sy and hard, then moistening them to toughen the outer bran layer, and finally pounding or milling to remove the bran and germ and leave the endosperm in coa.r.s.e chunks. It's the wheat version of parboiled rice (p. 473). The result is a nutritious form of wheat that keeps indefinitely and cooks relatively quickly. Coa.r.s.e bulgur (to 3.5 mm across) is used much as rice or couscous is, boiled or steamed to go with a moist dish or made into a pilaf or a salad, while fine bulgur (0.52 mm) is made into falafel (deep-fried b.a.l.l.s of bulgur and fava-bean flour), and various pudding-like sweets.

Green, or Immature Wheat Green wheat grains have also been enjoyed for their sweetness and unusual flavor. The stalks are cut while the grains are still moist inside, the grains charred over a small straw fire to weaken the husks and add flavor, then eaten fresh or dried for keeping (Turkish Green wheat grains have also been enjoyed for their sweetness and unusual flavor. The stalks are cut while the grains are still moist inside, the grains charred over a small straw fire to weaken the husks and add flavor, then eaten fresh or dried for keeping (Turkish firig, firig, Arab Arab frikke frikke).

Barley Barley, Hordeum vulgare, Hordeum vulgare, may have been the first cereal to be domesticated in the gra.s.slands of southwest Asia, where it grew alongside wheat. It has the advantage of a relatively short growing season and a hardy nature; it's grown from the Arctic Circle to the tropical plains of northern India. It was the primary cereal in ancient Babylon, Sumeria, Egypt, and the Mediterranean world, and was grown in the Indus valley civilization of western India long before rice. According to Pliny, barley was the special food of the gladiators, who were called may have been the first cereal to be domesticated in the gra.s.slands of southwest Asia, where it grew alongside wheat. It has the advantage of a relatively short growing season and a hardy nature; it's grown from the Arctic Circle to the tropical plains of northern India. It was the primary cereal in ancient Babylon, Sumeria, Egypt, and the Mediterranean world, and was grown in the Indus valley civilization of western India long before rice. According to Pliny, barley was the special food of the gladiators, who were called hordearii, hordearii, or "barley eaters"; barley porridge, the original polenta, was made with roasted flaxseed and coriander. In the Middle Ages, and especially in northern Europe, barley and rye were the staple foods of the peasantry, while wheat was reserved for the upper cla.s.ses. In the medieval Arab world, barley dough was fermented for months to produce a salty condiment, or "barley eaters"; barley porridge, the original polenta, was made with roasted flaxseed and coriander. In the Middle Ages, and especially in northern Europe, barley and rye were the staple foods of the peasantry, while wheat was reserved for the upper cla.s.ses. In the medieval Arab world, barley dough was fermented for months to produce a salty condiment, murri, murri, that food historian Charles Perry has discovered tastes much like soy sauce. that food historian Charles Perry has discovered tastes much like soy sauce.

Today, barley is a minor food in the West; half of production is fed to animals, and a third is used in the form of malt. Elsewhere, barley is made into various staple dishes, including the Tibetan roasted barley flour tsampa, tsampa, often eaten simply moistened with tea; it's an important ingredient in the j.a.panese fermented soy paste miso; and in Morocco (the largest per capita consumer) and other countries of north Africa and western Asia it's used in soups, porridges, and flat breads. In Ethiopia there are white, black, and purple-grained barleys, some of which are made into drinks. Water simmered with raw or roasted barley has been enjoyed for two thousand years or more, from western Europe to j.a.pan. often eaten simply moistened with tea; it's an important ingredient in the j.a.panese fermented soy paste miso; and in Morocco (the largest per capita consumer) and other countries of north Africa and western Asia it's used in soups, porridges, and flat breads. In Ethiopia there are white, black, and purple-grained barleys, some of which are made into drinks. Water simmered with raw or roasted barley has been enjoyed for two thousand years or more, from western Europe to j.a.pan.

The barley grain is notable for containing significant quant.i.ties - about 5% each of the grain weight - of two carbohydrates other than starch: the pentosans that give rye flours their stickiness, and the glucans that give oats their gelatinous and cholesterol-lowering qualities (pp. 470, 471). Both are found in the walls of endosperm cells as well as in the bran, and together with barley's water-insoluble proteins they contribute to the distinctively springy texture of the cooked grain. They also cause barley flour to absorb twice the water that wheat flour does.

Pearled Barley There are hull-less barleys, but most food varieties have adherent hulls that are removed as part of the milling process. Barley has more of its grain removed than does rice, the other grain frequently prepared as a whole grain. This is partly because barley bran is brittle and doesn't come off in large flakes, so it can't be removed during normal milling; and partly because processors eliminate the deep crease in the barley grain to give it a more uniform appearance. The process of "pearling" in a stone mill removes the hull and then portions of the bran. "Pot barley" has lost 715% of the grain, but retains the germ and some of the bran, and so more nutrients and flavor. Fine pearled barley has lost the bran, germ, and aleurone and subaleurone layers, a loss of about 33% of the grain's initial weight. There are hull-less barleys, but most food varieties have adherent hulls that are removed as part of the milling process. Barley has more of its grain removed than does rice, the other grain frequently prepared as a whole grain. This is partly because barley bran is brittle and doesn't come off in large flakes, so it can't be removed during normal milling; and partly because processors eliminate the deep crease in the barley grain to give it a more uniform appearance. The process of "pearling" in a stone mill removes the hull and then portions of the bran. "Pot barley" has lost 715% of the grain, but retains the germ and some of the bran, and so more nutrients and flavor. Fine pearled barley has lost the bran, germ, and aleurone and subaleurone layers, a loss of about 33% of the grain's initial weight.

Food Words: From Barley Water to Orgeat, Horchata, Tisane Orgeat, Horchata, TisaneThe European habit of drinking barley water has mostly faded away, but it lives on in the names of several other beverages or beverage flavorings. The Latin word for barley, hordeum, hordeum, became the French became the French orge orge; orge monde, orge monde, meaning hulled barley, became meaning hulled barley, became orgemonde orgemonde and in the 16th century and in the 16th century orgeat. orgeat. Orgeat is still around, but it's now an almond-flavored syrup. Orgeat is still around, but it's now an almond-flavored syrup. Orgeat Orgeat also became the Spanish word also became the Spanish word horchata, horchata, which gradually evolved from a barley drink to a drink made with either rice or the chufa or tiger "nut" (p. 308). And which gradually evolved from a barley drink to a drink made with either rice or the chufa or tiger "nut" (p. 308). And tisane, tisane, the modern French term for an infusion of herbs or flowers? It comes from the Latin the modern French term for an infusion of herbs or flowers? It comes from the Latin ptisana, ptisana, which meant both crushed cleaned barley or the drink made therefrom, which was sometimes flavored with herbs. which meant both crushed cleaned barley or the drink made therefrom, which was sometimes flavored with herbs.

Barley Malt The most important form in which we consume barley is The most important form in which we consume barley is malt, malt, a major ingredient in beers and some distilled liquors, and a minor ingredient in many baked goods. Malt is a powder or syrup made from barley grains that are moistened and allowed to germinate, and that become sweet with sugars. Its production and qualities are described below (pp. 679, 743). a major ingredient in beers and some distilled liquors, and a minor ingredient in many baked goods. Malt is a powder or syrup made from barley grains that are moistened and allowed to germinate, and that become sweet with sugars. Its production and qualities are described below (pp. 679, 743).

Rye Rye apparently arose in southwest Asia, migrated with domesticated wheat and barley as a weed in the crops of early farmers, reached the coast of the Baltic Sea around 2000 BCE BCE, grew better than the other cereals in the typically poor, acid soil and cool, moist climate, and was domesticated around 1000 BCE BCE. It's exceptionally hardy, and is grown as far north as the Arctic Circle and as high as 12,000 feet/4,000 meters. Up through the last century it was the predominant bread grain for the poor of northern Europe, and even today the taste for rye persists, especially in Scandinavia and eastern Europe. Poland, Germany, and Russia are the leading producers. In Germany, wheat production exceeded rye for the first time only in 1957.

Rye has unusual carbohydrates and proteins, and as a result produces a distinctive kind of bread. It's described in the next chapter (p. 545).

Rye Carbohydrates Rye contains a large quant.i.ty, up to 7% of its weight, of carbohydrates called Rye contains a large quant.i.ty, up to 7% of its weight, of carbohydrates called pentosans pentosans (an old term; the new one is (an old term; the new one is arabinoxylans arabinoxylans). These are medium-sized aggregates of sugars that have the very useful property of absorbing large amounts of water and producing a thick, viscous, sticky consistency. Thanks to its pentosans, rye flour absorbs eight times its weight in water, while wheat flour absorbs two. Unlike starch, the pentosans don't retrograde and harden after being cooked and cooled. So they provide a soft, moist texture that helps gives rye breads a shelf life of weeks. Rye pentosans also help control appet.i.te; the dried carbohydrates in rye crisps swell in the stomach, thus giving the sensation of fullness, and they are slowly and only partly digested.

Rye and LSDIn addition to its role as a food, rye has also had an indirect influence on modern medicine and recreational pharmacology. The cool, moist climate in which rye does well is also favorable for the growth of the ergot ergot fungus ( fungus (Claviceps purpurea). From the 11th to the 16th centuries, ergot contamination of rye flour was responsible for frequent epidemics of what was called Holy Fire or Saint Anthony's Fire, a disease with two sets of symptoms: progressive gangrene, in which extremities turned black, shrank, and dropped off; and mental derangement. Occasional outbreaks of ergot poisoning from contaminated flour continued well into the 20th century.Early in the 20th century, chemists isolated from ergot a handful of alkaloids with very different effects: one stimulates the uterine muscle; some are hallucinogens; and some constrict the blood vessels, an action that can cause gangrene, but that also has useful medical applications. All these alkaloids have a basic component in common called lysergic acid. In 1943 the Swiss scientist Albert Hofman discovered the particular variant that would come to such prominence in the 1960s: the hallucinogen lysergic acid diethylamide, or LSD.

Oats The world produces more oats than rye today, but 95% of the crop is fed to animals. Oats are the grains of Avena sativa, Avena sativa, a gra.s.s that probably originated in south-west Asia and gradually came under cultivation as a companion of wheat and barley. In Greek and Roman times it was considered a weed or a diseased form of wheat. By 1600 it had become an important crop in northern Europe, in whose wet climate it does best; oats require more moisture than any other cereal but rice. Other countries, however, continued to disdain it. Samuel Johnson's a gra.s.s that probably originated in south-west Asia and gradually came under cultivation as a companion of wheat and barley. In Greek and Roman times it was considered a weed or a diseased form of wheat. By 1600 it had become an important crop in northern Europe, in whose wet climate it does best; oats require more moisture than any other cereal but rice. Other countries, however, continued to disdain it. Samuel Johnson's Dictionary Dictionary (London, 1755) gives this definition for oats: "A grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people." (London, 1755) gives this definition for oats: "A grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people."

Today the United Kingdom and the United States are the largest consumers of food oats. U.S. consumption was boosted in the late 19th century by Ferdinand Schumacher, a German immigrant who developed quick-cooking rolled oats for breakfast, and Henry Crowell, who was the first to turn a cereal from a commodity into a retail brand by packaging oats neatly with cooking instructions, labeling it "Pure," and naming it "Quaker Oats." Oats are now a mainstay in ready-to-eat granolas, mueslis, and manufactured breakfast cereals.

There are several reasons for the relatively minor status of oats. Like barley, oats have no gluten-producing proteins, which means that they can't be made into light raised breads. The kernel has adherent husks that make it difficult to process. Oats contain from two to five times the fat that wheat does, mainly in the bran and endosperm rather than the germ, and also carry large amounts of a fat-digesting enzyme. The combination means that oats have a tendency to become rancid. They require a heat treatment that inactivates the enzyme in order to prevent rapid deterioration during storage.

On the other hand, oats do have several virtues. They're rich in indigestible carbohydrates called beta-glucans, which absorb and hold water, give hot oatmeal its smooth, thick consistency, have a tenderizing, moistening effect in baked goods, and help lower our blood cholesterol levels. The glucans are found mainly in the outer layers of the endosperm under the aleurone layer, and so are especially concentrated in oat bran. Oats also contain a number of phenolic compounds that have antioxidant activity.

Oat Processing Oats are generally used as whole grains, also called groats, because they're much softer than wheat or corn and don't break cleanly into endosperm, germ, and bran. The first stage in their processing is a low-temperature "roasting," which gives the grain much of its characteristic flavor and inactivates the fat-splitting enzyme. (This step also denatures the storage proteins and makes them less soluble, giving the grain greater integrity during cooking.) The whole groats are then processed into various shapes, all of which have the same nutritional value. Steel-cut oats are simply whole groats cut into two to four pieces for faster cooking. Rolled oats are whole kernels that are steamed to make them soft and malleable, then pressed between rollers to make them thin and quick to reabsorb water during cooking or simple soaking (as for muesli). The thinner the oats are rolled, the faster they rehydrate: regular oats are about 0.8 mm thick, "quick-cooking" oats are around 0.4 mm, and "instant" even thinner. Oats are generally used as whole grains, also called groats, because they're much softer than wheat or corn and don't break cleanly into endosperm, germ, and bran. The first stage in their processing is a low-temperature "roasting," which gives the grain much of its characteristic flavor and inactivates the fat-splitting enzyme. (This step also denatures the storage proteins and makes them less soluble, giving the grain greater integrity during cooking.) The whole groats are then processed into various shapes, all of which have the same nutritional value. Steel-cut oats are simply whole groats cut into two to four pieces for faster cooking. Rolled oats are whole kernels that are steamed to make them soft and malleable, then pressed between rollers to make them thin and quick to reabsorb water during cooking or simple soaking (as for muesli). The thinner the oats are rolled, the faster they rehydrate: regular oats are about 0.8 mm thick, "quick-cooking" oats are around 0.4 mm, and "instant" even thinner.

Rice Rice is the princ.i.p.al food for about half of the world's population, and in such countries as Bangladesh and Cambodia provides nearly three-quarters of the daily energy intake. Oryza sativa Oryza sativa is a native of the tropical and semitropical Indian subcontinent, northern Indochina, and southern China, and was probably domesticated in several places independently, the short-grain types around 7000 is a native of the tropical and semitropical Indian subcontinent, northern Indochina, and southern China, and was probably domesticated in several places independently, the short-grain types around 7000 BCE BCE in the Yangtze River valley of south-central China, and long-grain types in Southeast Asia somewhat later. A sister species with a distinctive flavor and red bran, in the Yangtze River valley of south-central China, and long-grain types in Southeast Asia somewhat later. A sister species with a distinctive flavor and red bran, Oryza glaberrima, Oryza glaberrima, has been grown in west Africa for at least 1,500 years. has been grown in west Africa for at least 1,500 years.

Rice found its way from Asia to Europe via Persia, where the Arabs learned to grow and cook it. The Moors first grew large quant.i.ties in Spain in the 8th century, then somewhat later in Sicily. The valley of the Po River and the Lombardy plain in northern Italy, the home of risotto, first produced rice in the 15th century. The Spanish and Portuguese introduced rice throughout the Americas in the 16th and 17th centuries. South Carolina was the location of the first commercial American planting in 1685, where the rice-growing expertise of African slaves was important; today most U.S. rice comes from Arkansas and the lower Mississippi region, Texas, and California.

Kinds of Rice There are thought to be more than 100,000 distinct varieties of rice throughout the world. They all fall into one of two traditionally recognized subspecies of There are thought to be more than 100,000 distinct varieties of rice throughout the world. They all fall into one of two traditionally recognized subspecies of Oryza sativa. Indica Oryza sativa. Indica rices are generally grown in lowland tropics and subtropics, acc.u.mulate a large amount of amylose starch, and produce a long, firm grain. rices are generally grown in lowland tropics and subtropics, acc.u.mulate a large amount of amylose starch, and produce a long, firm grain. j.a.ponica j.a.ponica rices, with upland varieties that do well both in the tropics (Indonesian and Filipino types sometimes known as rices, with upland varieties that do well both in the tropics (Indonesian and Filipino types sometimes known as javanicas javanicas) and in temperate climates (j.a.pan, Korea, Italy, and California), acc.u.mulate substantially less amylose starch than the indicas, indicas, and produce a shorter, stickier grain. There are also varieties that are intermediate between and produce a shorter, stickier grain. There are also varieties that are intermediate between indica indica and and j.a.ponica. j.a.ponica. Generally, the higher the amylose content in a rice variety, the more organized and stable the starch granules, and so the more water, heat, and time it takes to cook the grains. Generally, the higher the amylose content in a rice variety, the more organized and stable the starch granules, and so the more water, heat, and time it takes to cook the grains.

Most rice is milled to remove the bran and most of the germ, and then "polished" with fine wire brushes to grind away the aleurone layer and its oil and enzymes. The result is a very stable refined grain that keeps well for months.

Common categories of rice include the following: Long-grain rice has an elongated shape, its length four to five times its width. Thanks to its relatively high proportion of amylose (22%), it tends to require the largest proportion of water to rice (1.7 to 1 by weight, 1.4 to 1 by volume), and to produce separate springy grains that become firm as they cool, and distinctly hard if chilled. Most Chinese and Indian rices are long-grain rice has an elongated shape, its length four to five times its width. Thanks to its relatively high proportion of amylose (22%), it tends to require the largest proportion of water to rice (1.7 to 1 by weight, 1.4 to 1 by volume), and to produce separate springy grains that become firm as they cool, and distinctly hard if chilled. Most Chinese and Indian rices are long-grain indicas, indicas, as is most of the rice sold in the United States. as is most of the rice sold in the United States.

Medium-grain rice is two to three times longer than it is wide, contains less amylose (1517%) than long-grain rice and requires less water, and develops tender grains that cling to each other. Italian risotto rices and Spanish paella rices are medium-grain rice is two to three times longer than it is wide, contains less amylose (1517%) than long-grain rice and requires less water, and develops tender grains that cling to each other. Italian risotto rices and Spanish paella rices are medium-grain j.a.ponicas. j.a.ponicas.

Short-grain rice is only slightly longer than it is wide, and otherwise similar to medium-grain rice. Short-and medium-grain rice is only slightly longer than it is wide, and otherwise similar to medium-grain rice. Short-and medium-grain j.a.ponicas j.a.ponicas are the preferred types in north China, j.a.pan, and Korea. They're ideal for sus.h.i.+ because they cling together in small ma.s.ses and remain tender even when served at room temperature. are the preferred types in north China, j.a.pan, and Korea. They're ideal for sus.h.i.+ because they cling together in small ma.s.ses and remain tender even when served at room temperature.

Sticky rice, also called waxy, glutinous, or sweet rice, is a short-grain type whose starch is practically all amylopectin. It requires the least water (1 to 1 by weight, 0.8 to 1 by volume) and becomes very clingy and readily disintegrates when cooked (it's often soaked and then steamed, not boiled). Despite its names, it contains no gluten and isn't sweet, though it's often used to make sweet dishes in Asia. It's the standard rice in Laos and northern Thailand. rice, also called waxy, glutinous, or sweet rice, is a short-grain type whose starch is practically all amylopectin. It requires the least water (1 to 1 by weight, 0.8 to 1 by volume) and becomes very clingy and readily disintegrates when cooked (it's often soaked and then steamed, not boiled). Despite its names, it contains no gluten and isn't sweet, though it's often used to make sweet dishes in Asia. It's the standard rice in Laos and northern Thailand.

Aromatic rices are a distinctive group of mainly long-and medium-grain varieties that acc.u.mulate unusually high concentrations of volatile compounds. Indian and Pakistani rices are a distinctive group of mainly long-and medium-grain varieties that acc.u.mulate unusually high concentrations of volatile compounds. Indian and Pakistani basmati basmati (Urdu for "fragrant," accent on the first syllable), Thai jasmine (an unusual long-grain but low-amylose type), and U.S. Della are well-known aromatic rices. (Urdu for "fragrant," accent on the first syllable), Thai jasmine (an unusual long-grain but low-amylose type), and U.S. Della are well-known aromatic rices.

Pigmented rices have bran layers that are rich in anthocyanin pigments. Red and purple-black colors are the most common. The bran may be left intact, or partly milled away so that only traces of color are left. rices have bran layers that are rich in anthocyanin pigments. Red and purple-black colors are the most common. The bran may be left intact, or partly milled away so that only traces of color are left.

Brown Rice Brown rice is unmilled, its bran, germ, and aleurone layers intact. Any kind of rice, whether long-grain, short-grain, or aromatic, may be sold in its brown form. It takes two to three times longer to cook than the milled version of the same variety, and has a chewy texture and a rich aroma, often described as nutty. Thanks to the oil in its bran and germ, it's more susceptible to staling than polished rice, and is best stored in the refrigerator. Brown rice is unmilled, its bran, germ, and aleurone layers intact. Any kind of rice, whether long-grain, short-grain, or aromatic, may be sold in its brown form. It takes two to three times longer to cook than the milled version of the same variety, and has a chewy texture and a rich aroma, often described as nutty. Thanks to the oil in its bran and germ, it's more susceptible to staling than polished rice, and is best stored in the refrigerator.

Parboiled or Converted Rice For more than 2,000 years, rice producers in India and Pakistan have parboiled nonaromatic varieties before they remove the hull and mill them to white rice. They steep the freshly harvested grain in water, boil or steam it, and then dry it again before hulling and milling. This precooking brings several advantages. It improves the nutritional quality of the milled grain by causing vitamins in the bran and germ to diffuse into the endosperm, and causing the aleurone layer to adhere to the grain. Precooking the starch also hardens the grain and makes its surface less sticky, so when cooked again, parboiled rice produces separate firm intact grains. Parboiled rice also has a distinctive nutty flavor; the soaking activates enzymes that generate sugars and amino acids that then partic.i.p.ate in browning reactions during drying; and partial breakdown of lignin in the attached hull provides vanillin and related compounds. Parboiled rice takes longer to cook than ordinary white rice, a third to half again the time, and its texture is so firm that it can seem coa.r.s.e. For more than 2,000 years, rice producers in India and Pakistan have parboiled nonaromatic varieties before they remove the hull and mill them to white rice. They steep the freshly harvested grain in water, boil or steam it, and then dry it again before hulling and milling. This precooking brings several advantages. It improves the nutritional quality of the milled grain by causing vitamins in the bran and germ to diffuse into the endosperm, and causing the aleurone layer to adhere to the grain. Precooking the starch also hardens the grain and makes its surface less sticky, so when cooked again, parboiled rice produces separate firm intact grains. Parboiled rice also has a distinctive nutty flavor; the soaking activates enzymes that generate sugars and amino acids that then partic.i.p.ate in browning reactions during drying; and partial breakdown of lignin in the attached hull provides vanillin and related compounds. Parboiled rice takes longer to cook than ordinary white rice, a third to half again the time, and its texture is so firm that it can seem coa.r.s.e.

Different forms of rice. Brown rice includes the outer fruit and seed coats that make up the bran, and the embryo and oil-and enzyme-rich aleurone layer. Polished rice is the central ma.s.s of endosperm cells, freed from all other parts of the grain; it's mainly starch and protein. Wild rice is the whole grain of a North American gra.s.s; it is heated to dry it out and develop flavor, and this processing gives its endosperm a distinctive gla.s.sy appearance.

Quick-Cooking Rice Quick-cooking rice is manufactured by cooking white, brown, or parboiled rice, thus disrupting its cell walls and gelating its starch, then fissuring the grain in order to speed the infiltration of hot water when the consumer cooks it, and finally drying it. The fissuring may be accomplished with dry heat, rolling, microwave treatments, or freeze-drying. Quick-cooking rice is manufactured by cooking white, brown, or parboiled rice, thus disrupting its cell walls and gelating its starch, then fissuring the grain in order to speed the infiltration of hot water when the consumer cooks it, and finally drying it. The fissuring may be accomplished with dry heat, rolling, microwave treatments, or freeze-drying.

Rice Flavor The flavor of rice depends on the variety and the degree to which it is milled. The outer portions of the rice grain contain more free amino acids, sugars, and minerals, and proportionally less starch. The more a rice kernel is milled, and so the more of its surface is removed, the less flavor and the higher proportion of starch it contains. The flavor of rice depends on the variety and the degree to which it is milled. The outer portions of the rice grain contain more free amino acids, sugars, and minerals, and proportionally less starch. The more a rice kernel is milled, and so the more of its surface is removed, the less flavor and the higher proportion of starch it contains.

The aroma of standard white rices has green, mushroomy, cuc.u.mber-like, and "fatty" components (from 6, 8, 9, and 10-carbon aldehydes), as well as a slight popcorn note and floral, corn-like, hay-like, and animal qualities. Brown rices contain these and also small amounts of vanillin and maple-sugar-like sotolon. Aromatic rices are especially rich in the popcorn-like aromatic component (acetylpyrroline), which is also an important element in screwpine leaves (p. 411), and cooked popcorn and bread crust. Because it is volatile and not regenerated during cooking, the popcorn aromatic escapes during cooking, and its concentration declines. This is one reason for pre-soaking aromatic rices; this step shortens the cooking and minimizes aroma loss.

Cooking with Rice Many Traditional Methods The cooking of rice is a matter of introducing moisture throughout the grains and heating them enough to gelate and soften the starch granules. Indian cooks boil the rice in an excess of water that's poured off when the rice is done, so the grains end up intact and separate. Chinese and j.a.panese cooks boil rice with just enough water to moisten and cook it through in a closed pot, which produces a ma.s.s of grains that cling together and are easily eaten with chopsticks. Where rice has always been an everyday staff of life, through much of East Asia, it's usually prepared simply in water, and judged by the intactness of its grains and their whiteness, gloss, tenderness, and flavor. Where rice was more unusual and even a luxury, in central Asia, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean, it's often enriched with broths, oils, b.u.t.ter, and other ingredients to make such dishes as pilafs, risottos, and paellas. Iranians, perhaps the most sophisticated rice cooks, make The cooking of rice is a matter of introducing moisture throughout the grains and heating them enough to gelate and soften the starch granules. Indian cooks boil the rice in an excess of water that's poured off when the rice is done, so the grains end up intact and separate. Chinese and j.a.panese cooks boil rice with just enough water to moisten and cook it through in a closed pot, which produces a ma.s.s of grains that cling together and are easily eaten with chopsticks. Where rice has always been an everyday staff of life, through much of East Asia, it's usually prepared simply in water, and judged by the intactness of its grains and their whiteness, gloss, tenderness, and flavor. Where rice was more unusual and even a luxury, in central Asia, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean, it's often enriched with broths, oils, b.u.t.ter, and other ingredients to make such dishes as pilafs, risottos, and paellas. Iranians, perhaps the most sophisticated rice cooks, make polo polo by partly boiling long-grain rice in excess water, layering it with a variety of cooked meats, vegetables, dried fruits, and nuts, then gently steaming to finish the cooking, and managing the heat so that a brown crust of rice, the prized by partly boiling long-grain rice in excess water, layering it with a variety of cooked meats, vegetables, dried fruits, and nuts, then gently steaming to finish the cooking, and managing the heat so that a brown crust of rice, the prized tahdig, tahdig, forms at the bottom. forms at the bottom.

Rinsing and Soaking An initial rinsing of the dry rice removes surface starch and thus a source of added stickiness. Some rices, notably basmatis and j.a.panese varieties, are either soaked in water or allowed to rest for 2030 minutes after was.h.i.+ng; they thus absorb some water, which will speed the subsequent cooking. Brown and wild rices can be treated similarly. An initial rinsing of the dry rice removes surface starch and thus a source of added stickiness. Some rices, notably basmatis and j.a.panese varieties, are either soaked in water or allowed to rest for 2030 minutes after was.h.i.+ng; they thus absorb some water, which will speed the subsequent cooking. Brown and wild rices can be treated similarly.

After Cooking: Resting, Reheating Once cooked, rice benefits from a resting period to allow the grains to cool down somewhat and become firmer, so that they aren't as easily broken when scooped from the pot and served. Leftover rice is often hard due to the retrogradation of the starch, which is cured by heating it up to the gelation temperature again. Rice is easily softened by reheating to 160F/70C or above, either with a little added water in a pot or in the microwave oven, or fried to make fried rice, rice cakes, or croquettes. Once cooked, rice benefits from a resting period to allow the grains to cool down somewhat and become firmer, so that they aren't as easily broken when scooped from the pot and served. Leftover rice is often hard due to the retrogradation of the starch, which is cured by heating it up to the gelation temperature again. Rice is easily softened by reheating to 160F/70C or above, either with a little added water in a pot or in the microwave oven, or fried to make fried rice, rice cakes, or croquettes.

Keeping Rice Safe Cooked rice turns out to be a potential source of food poisoning. Raw rice almost always carries dormant spores of the bacterium Cooked rice turns out to be a potential source of food poisoning. Raw rice almost always carries dormant spores of the bacterium Bacillus cereus, Bacillus cereus, which produces powerful gastrointestinal toxins. The spores can tolerate high temperatures, and some survive cooking. If cooked rice is left for a few hours at room temperature, the spores germinate, bacteria multiply, and toxins acc.u.mulate. Ordinary cooked rice should therefore be served promptly, and leftovers refrigerated to prevent bacterial growth. The rice in j.a.panese sus.h.i.+ is served at room temperature, but the surface of its cooked grains are coated with a flavorful and antimicrobial mixture of rice vinegar and sugar. Rice salads should be similarly acidified with vinegar, lemon or lime juice. which produces powerful gastrointestinal toxins. The spores can tolerate high temperatures, and some survive cooking. If cooked rice is left for a few hours at room temperature, the spores germinate, bacteria multiply, and toxins acc.u.mulate. Ordinary cooked rice should therefore be served promptly, and leftovers refrigerated to prevent bacterial growth. The rice in j.a.panese sus.h.i.+ is served at room temperature, but the surface of its cooked grains are coated with a flavorful and antimicrobial mixture of rice vinegar and sugar. Rice salads should be similarly acidified with vinegar, lemon or lime juice.

Some Other Rice Preparations and Products Cultures across the world have found many different inventive uses for rice. Here is a brief sampling. Cultures across the world have found many different inventive uses for rice. Here is a brief sampling.

Rice Flour Rice flour is notable for being around 90% starch, and for having the smallest starch granules of the major cereals, a half to a quarter the size of wheat starch granules. When used to thicken sauces or fillings, it provides an especially fine texture. And thanks to its low protein content, the dry flour absorbs relatively little water. This means that when it's used to make a frying batter for j.a.panese tempura, rice flour gives a thin consistency with relatively little water, and so the batter readily fries to a crisp, dry texture. Rice flour is notable for being around 90% starch, and for having the smallest starch granules of the major cereals, a half to a quarter the size of wheat starch granules. When used to thicken sauces or fillings, it provides an especially fine texture. And thanks to its low protein content, the dry flour absorbs relatively little water. This means that when it's used to make a frying batter for j.a.panese tempura, rice flour gives a thin consistency with relatively little water, and so the batter readily fries to a crisp, dry texture.

Because rice flour contains no elastic gluten proteins, it can't be used to make raised breads. But the same lack of gluten makes rice flour a useful ingredient for people with gluten intolerance. Bakers make a reasonable approximation of raised bread by supplementing rice flour with xanthan or guar gum or other long-chain carbohydrates, which help bind the dough together and retain the gas bubbles produced by yeasts or chemical leavenings.

Risotto: Turning Rice into Its Own SauceThe risotto of Italy is made with medium-grain varieties that are fairly large and can tolerate the unique cooking method, which abrades and removes starch from the rice surface so that it can thicken the cooking liquid to a creamy consistency.To make risotto, the rice is cooked through by adding a small amount of hot cooking liquid at a time and stirring the rice until the liquid is absorbed, then repeating until the rice is soft but still has a kernel of chewiness at the center. This time-consuming technique subjects the rice grains to constant friction, and rubs softened endosperm from the surface so that it can become dissolved in the liquid phase (stirring only at the end of cooking breaks the softened grains apart rather than removing the surface layer). In addition, the cooking of small amounts of liquid in an open pan causes much of the moisture to evaporate, which means that more of the cooking liquid must be used, and thus that more of the cooking liquid's flavor becomes concentrated in the dish.Restaurant cooks prepare risotto to order by cooking the rice well ahead of time the traditional way until it's just short of done, then refrigerating it. This allows some of the cooked starch in the rice to firm (p. 458), giving the grain more resilience than it would have if cooked fully and simply rewarmed. Then just before serving, the chilled rice is reheated and finished with hot broth and enrichments.

Rice Powder Rice powder is a condiment made in Vietnam and Thailand by roasting the grains, then grinding them; it's sprinkled on a variety of dishes just before eating. Rice powder is a condiment made in Vietnam and Thailand by roasting the grains, then grinding them; it's sprinkled on a variety of dishes just before eating.

Rice Noodles and Rice Paper Despite rice's lack of gluten, noodles and thin sheets can be made from rice-flour doughs (p. 579). Rice paper is used as a wrapper to enclose meat and vegetable preparations, and can be eaten either simply moistened or fried. Despite rice's lack of gluten, noodles and thin sheets can be made from rice-flour doughs (p. 579). Rice paper is used as a wrapper to enclose meat and vegetable preparations, and can be eaten either simply moistened or fried.

Mochi Mochi is the j.a.panese name for a chewy, almost elastic preparation of sticky rice that may be formed into b.a.l.l.s or into thin sheets for wrapping around a filling of some kind. It's made by steaming sticky rice, then pounding it to a paste, or by making a dough from sticky rice flour and kneading it for 30 minutes. The pounding or kneading organizes the bushy amylopectin starch molecules into an intermeshed ma.s.s that resists changes in its structure. Mochi is the j.a.panese name for a chewy, almost elastic preparation of sticky rice that may be formed into b.a.l.l.s or into thin sheets for wrapping around a filling of some kind. It's made by steaming sticky rice, then pounding it to a paste, or by making a dough from sticky rice flour and kneading it for 30 minutes. The pounding or kneading organizes the bushy amylopectin starch molecules into an intermeshed ma.s.s that resists changes in its structure.

Lao Chao Lao chao is a Chinese fermented rice made from sticky rice. The rice is steamed, cooled, made into small cakes with a starter that includes the mold Lao chao is a Chinese fermented rice made from sticky rice. The rice is steamed, cooled, made into small cakes with a starter that includes the mold Aspergillus oryzae Aspergillus oryzae (p. 755) and yeasts, and held at room temperature for two to three days until it becomes soft, sweet, and tart, with a fruity and alcoholic aroma. (p. 755) and yeasts, and held at room temperature for two to three days until it becomes soft, sweet, and tart, with a fruity and alcoholic aroma.

Wild Rice Wild rice is not a species of the true tropical rice genus Wild rice is not a species of the true tropical rice genus Oryza. Oryza. It's a distant relative, a cool-climate water gra.s.s that produces unusually long grains, to three-quarters of an inch (2 cm), with a dark seedcoat and a complex, distinctive flavor. It's a distant relative, a cool-climate water gra.s.s that produces unusually long grains, to three-quarters of an inch (2 cm), with a dark seedcoat and a complex, distinctive flavor. Zizania pal.u.s.tris Zizania pal.u.s.tris is a native of the upper midwestern Great Lakes region of North America, where it grows in shallow lakes and marshes and was gathered in canoes by the Ojibway and other native peoples. It's the only cereal from North America to have become important as a human food. Wild rice is unusual among the cereals for containing double the usual amount of moisture at maturity, around 40% of the kernel weight. It thus requires more elaborate processing than true rice in order to be stored. It's first matured in moist piles for a week or two, during which immature grains continue to ripen and microbes grow on the grain surfaces, generating flavor and weakening the husks. Then it is parched over a fire to dry the grain, flavor it, and make the husk brittle; and finally it's threshed to remove the husk. is a native of the upper midwestern Great Lakes region of North America, where it grows in shallow lakes and marshes and was gathered in canoes by the Ojibway and other native peoples. It's the only cereal from North America to have become important as a human food. Wild rice is unusual among the cereals for containing double the usual amount of moisture at maturity, around 40% of the kernel weight. It thus requires more elaborate processing than true rice in order to be stored. It's first matured in moist piles for a week or two, during which immature grains continue to ripen and microbes grow on the grain surfaces, generating flavor and weakening the husks. Then it is parched over a fire to dry the grain, flavor it, and make the husk brittle; and finally it's threshed to remove the husk.

Texture and Flavor Wild rice has a firm, chewy texture thanks to its intact bran layer and the parching process, which gelates and then anneals the starch much as parboiling does for true rice. It takes longer to cook than most grains, sometimes an hour or more, because its starch has been precooked into a hard, gla.s.sy ma.s.s, and because its bran layers are impregnated with cutins and waxes (p. 262) to resist the absorption of water (in nature, the grains fall into the water and lie dormant for months or even years before germinating). The dark pigmentation may also contribute; it is partly green-black chlorophyll derivatives and partly black phenolic complexes generated by browning enzymes. Producers often slightly abrade the grains to improve their water absorption and shorten cooking time. Cooks can also pre-soak the grains for hours in warm water. Wild rice has a firm, chewy texture thanks to its intact bran layer and the parching process, which gelates and then anneals the starch much as parboiling does for true rice. It takes longer to cook than most grains, sometimes an hour or more, because its starch has been precooked into a hard, gla.s.sy ma.s.s, and because its bran layers are impregnated with cutins and waxes (p. 262) to resist the absorption of water (in nature, the grains fall into the water and lie dormant for months or even years before germinating). The dark pigmentation may also contribute; it is partly green-black chlorophyll derivatives and partly black phenolic complexes generated by browning enzymes. Producers often slightly abrade the grains to improve their water absorption and shorten cooking time. Cooks can also pre-soak the grains for hours in warm water.

The flavor of the raw grain has earthy and green, flowery, tea-like notes. Curing amplifies the tea notes (from pyridines) but may add an undesirable mustiness; parching generates browning reactions and a toasted, nutty character (from pyrazines). Different producers use different methods for curing (none, brief, extended) and parching (low or high temperatures, open fires or indirectly heated metal drums), so the flavor of wild rice varies greatly.

Domesticated Wild Rice Relatively little wild rice is still gathered from uncultivated, naturally occurring stands. Today most is grown in artificially flooded paddies, and harvested mechanically after the fields are drained. Cultivated wild rice therefore has more consistently mature, dark seedcoats than the gathered grain. To taste truly wild rice from its native region and savor the differences among small producers, it's necessary to read labels carefully. Relatively little wild rice is still gathered from uncultivated, naturally occurring stands. Today most is grown in artificially flooded paddies, and harvested mechanically after the fields are drained. Cultivated wild rice therefore has more consistently mature, dark seedcoats than the gathered grain. To taste truly wild rice from its native region and savor the differences among small producers, it's necessary to read labels carefully.

Maize, or Corn Maize, known in the United States as "corn" and among biologists as Zea mays, Zea mays, was domesticated in Mexico some 7,000 to 10,000 years ago from a large gra.s.s called teosinte ( was domesticated in Mexico some 7,000 to 10,000 years ago from a large gra.s.s called teosinte (Zea mexicana), which grows in open woodlands. Unlike the Old World cereals and the legumes, which human selection altered in relatively minor ways, corn is the result of several drastic changes in the structure of teosinte that concentrated pollen production at the top of the plant and female flower production - and cob and kernel production - along the main stalk. The large size of both plant and fruit made corn agriculture relatively easy, and corn quickly became the basic food plant of many other early American cultures. The Incas of Peru, the Mayas and Aztecs of Mexico, the cliff dwellers of the American Southwest, Mississippi mound builders, and many seminomadic cultures in North and South America depended on corn as a dietary staple. Columbus brought corn back with him to Europe, and within a generation it was being grown throughout southern Europe.

Corn is now the third largest human food crop in the world after wheat and rice, and is the primary nourishment for millions of people in Latin America, Asia, and Africa. In Europe and the United States, where more corn is fed to livestock than to people, it's appreciated for its unique flavor, for the texture and substance it contributes to a variety of boiled, baked and fried foods, and as a snack food. Corn also provides mash for making whiskey, corn starch for thickening sauces and fillings, corn syrup for flavoring and lending viscosity to various sweet preparations, and corn oil. Different parts of the plant are also turned into many industrial products.

Kinds and Colors of Corn There are five general kinds of corn, each characterized by a different endosperm composition. It appears that a high-protein popcorn type was the first corn to be cultivated, but all five were known to native Americans long before the coming of Europeans. There are five general kinds of corn, each characterized by a different endosperm composition. It appears that a high-protein popcorn type was the first corn to be cultivated, but all five were known to native Americans long before the coming of Europeans.

Popcorn and and flint corn flint corn have a relatively large amount of storage protein that surrounds granules of high-amy-lose starch. have a relatively large amount of storage protein that surrounds granules of high-amy-lose starch.

Dent corn, the variety most commonly grown for animal feed and for milled food ingredients (grits, meals, flours), has a localized deposit of low-amylose, "waxy" starch at the crown of the kernel, which produces a depression, or dent, in the dried kernel. the variety most commonly grown for animal feed and for milled food ingredients (grits, meals, flours), has a localized deposit of low-amylose, "waxy" starch at the crown of the kernel, which produces a depression, or dent, in the dried kernel.

Flour corns, including the standard varieties of blue corn, are soft and easily ground because their endosperm is a discontinuous and weak combination of relatively little protein, mostly waxy starch, and air pockets. What we call Indian corn today are flour and flint varieties with variegated kernels. including the standard varieties of blue corn, are soft and easily ground because their endosperm is a discontinuous and weak combination of relatively little protein, mostly waxy starch, and air pockets. What we call Indian corn today are flour and flint varieties with variegated kernels.

Sweet corn, a popular vegetable in the United States when immature, stores more sugar than starch, and therefore has translucent kernels and loose, wrinkled skins (starch grains reflect light and plump out the kernels in the other types). Most corn-producing countries also eat immature corn, but use the other general-purpose corn types. The native Americans who first developed it apparently enjoyed sweet corn for its full flavor when parched. a popular vegetable in the United States when immature, stores more sugar than starch, and therefore has translucent kernels and loose, wrinkled skins (starch grains reflect light and plump out the kernels in the other types). Most corn-producing countries also eat immature corn, but use the other general-purpose corn types. The native Americans who first developed it apparently enjoyed sweet corn for its full flavor when parched.

Food Words: Corn Corn and and Maize MaizeThe grain that Americans call "corn" was originally known in English as "maize" or "Indian corn." "Maize" comes from the Taino name used in the West Indies, and is the source of the Spanish, Italian, and French names. The word corn corn is a generic term that comes from the same root as is a generic term that comes from the same root as kernel kernel and and grain grain and has the same broad meaning; so "corned" beef is beef cured with grains of salt. "Corn" is also used in different parts of Britain as shorthand for the most important grain of the region. Only in the United States did it come to refer exclusively to maize. and has the same broad meaning; so "corned" beef is beef cured with grains of salt. "Corn" is also used in different parts of Britain as shorthand for the most important grain of the region. Only in the United States did it come to refer exclusively to maize.

The different kinds of corn also come in various colors, some of which were originally selected by native Americans for ceremonial use. The interior is usually either unpigmented and white, or yellow with nutritionally valuable fat-soluble carotenes and xanthophylls (beta carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin). Blue, purple, and red kernels carry water-soluble anthocyanins in their aleurone layer, the nutrient-rich cell layer just under the hull.

Alkaline Treatment: Several Benefits Corn is unusual among the grains for its large size, and for the thickness and toughness of its outer pericarp, or hull. Early corn eaters developed a special pretreatment to ease the removal of the hull, which is called Corn is unusual among the grains for its large size, and for the thickness and toughness of its outer pericarp, or hull. Early corn eaters developed a special pretreatment to ease the removal of the hull, which is called nixtamalization nixtamalization (from an Aztec word): they cooked the kernels in water made alkaline with a variety of substances. The Mayas and Aztecs used ashes or lime; North American tribes, ashes and naturally occurring sodium carbonate deposits; and a contemporary Mayan group burns mussel sh.e.l.ls for the same purpose. One of the major glue-like components of plant cells walls, hemicellulose, is especially soluble in alkaline conditions. Nixtamalization softens the hull and partly detaches it from the rest of the kernel so that it can be rubbed off and washed away. It also helps transform the kernels into a cohesive dough for making tortillas and other preparations (see below), and it releases much of their bound niacin so that we can absorb and benefit from it. (from an Aztec word): they cooked the kernels in water made alkaline with a variety of substances. The Mayas and Aztecs used ashes or lime; North American tribes, ashes and naturally occurring sodium carbonate deposits; and a contemporary Mayan group burns mussel sh.e.l.ls for the same purpose. One of the major glue-like components of plant cells walls, hemicellulose, is especially soluble in alkaline conditions. Nixtamalization softens the hull and partly detaches it from the rest of the kernel so that it can be rubbed off and washed away. It also helps transform the kernels into a cohesive dough for making tortillas and other preparations (see below), and it releases much of their bound niacin so that we can absorb and benefit from it.

Corn Flavor Corn has a distinctive flavor unlike that of any other grain. Popcorn and other dry corn products toasted at a high temperature develop a number of characteristic carbon-ring compounds, including one that they share with basmati rice (acetylpyrroline). Alkaline processing gives rise to yet another set of distinctive aroma molecules, including one that is a breakdown product of the amino acid tryptophan, and a close chemical and aromatic relative of a characteristic note in concord grapes and wood strawberries (aminoacetophenone, related to the fruits' methyl anthranilate). Masa can also have violet-like and spicy notes (from ionone and vinylguaiacol). Corn has a distinctive flavor unlike that of any other grain. Popcorn and other dry corn products toasted at a high temperature develop a number of characteristic carbon-ring compounds, including one that they share with basmati rice (acetylpyrroline). Alkaline processing gives rise to yet another set of distinctive aroma molecules, including one that is a breakdown product of the amino acid tryptophan, and a close chemical and aromatic relative of a characteristic note in concord grapes and wood strawberries (aminoacetophenone, related to the fruits' methyl anthranilate). Masa can also have violet-like and spicy notes (from ionone and vinylguaiacol).

Types of corn. Left to right: Left to right: Kernels of pop, dent, and sweet corn. Its abundant hard endosperm helps popcorn contain the steam pressure that eventually explodes it. Kernels of pop, dent, and sweet corn. Its abundant hard endosperm helps popcorn contain the steam pressure that eventually explodes it.

Whole-grain Corns: Hominy, Corn Nuts Common corn ingredients and foods can be divided into two general groups: those based on the whole grain, and those based on ground grain. There's also a basic division between dry, untreated materials and "wet-processed" alkaline-treated materials. Common corn ingredients and foods can be divided into two general groups: those based on the whole grain, and those based on ground grain. There's also a basic division between dry, untreated materials and "wet-processed" alkaline-treated materials.

Whole-grain versions of corn are relatively few, with popcorn by far the most common. Hominy consists of whole corn kernels, preferably white, cooked for 2040 minutes in a solution of lime or lye, then washed of their hulls and excess alkaline solution. Hominy is used in soups (pozole), stews, and side dishes, and has a dense, chewy consistency. Corn Nuts are a familiar snack food made from the largest kernels known, the Cuzco gigante variety from Peru. The kernels are treated with alkali to remove the hulls, soaked for some hours in warm water, fried to develop color, flavor, and a crunchy texture, then flavored.

Popcorn It appears from archaeological remains in Mexico that popping in the embers of a fire may have been the first method for cooking corn. Early explorers described popped corn among the Aztecs, Incas, and North American tribes. In the 19th century, Americans served popcorn as a breakfast cereal, made it into porridges, puddings, and cakes, added it to soups, salads, and main dishes, and mixed it with mola.s.ses to make an ancestor of the sweet popcorn ball and Cracker Jack. Popcorn was a popular finger food in the United States in the 1880s, then became a.s.sociated with movie theatres, and later with watching television in the home. In the 21st century, most of the popcorn sold in supermarkets is packaged for microwave cooking. It appears from archaeological remains in Mexico that popping in the embers of a fire may have been the first method for cooking corn. Early explorers described popped corn among the Aztecs, Incas, and North American tribes. In the 19th century, Americans served popcorn as a breakfast cereal, made it into porridges, puddings, and cakes, added it to soups, salads, and main dishes, and mixed it with mola.s.ses to make an ancestor of the sweet popcorn ball and Cracker Jack. Popcorn was a popular finger food in the United States in the 1880s, then became a.s.sociated with movie theatres, and later with watching television in the home. In the 21st century, most of the popcorn sold in supermarkets is packaged for microwave cooking.

How Popcorn Pops Some flint and dent varieties of corn will explode and form a crisp puff, but expand far less than true popping varieties, which are generally smaller and contain a greater proportion of hard translucent endosperm. Thanks to a denser arrangement of cellulose fibers, the popcorn hull (pericarp) conducts heat several times faster than the hull of ordinary corn; and thanks to both its density and