59 Seconds_ Think A Little, Change A Lot Part 3

4. Going public.

Whom are you going to tell about your goal and sub-goals? Perhaps your friends, family, or colleagues. Could you describe it on a blog or display it somewhere prominent in your house or at the office?

PROCRASTINATION AND THE ZEIGARNIK EFFECTResearch suggests that about 20 percent of people identify themselves as chronic procrastinators.7 Presumably this figure underestimates the scale of the problem, given that it can be based only on people who completed the questionnaires on time. Regardless of the actual figure, it is obvious that procrastination can be a major problem, causing people to fail to pay bills on time, not complete projects by deadlines, and make inadequate preparation for important exams and interviews. Procrastination is a surprisingly complex phenomenon that can stem from a variety of causes, including fear of failure, perfectionism, low levels of self-control, a tendency to see projects as a whole rather than breaking them into smaller parts, being p.r.o.ne to boredom, the feeling that life is too short to worry about seemingly unimportant tasks, and an inability to accurately estimate how long it takes to do things. Presumably this figure underestimates the scale of the problem, given that it can be based only on people who completed the questionnaires on time. Regardless of the actual figure, it is obvious that procrastination can be a major problem, causing people to fail to pay bills on time, not complete projects by deadlines, and make inadequate preparation for important exams and interviews. Procrastination is a surprisingly complex phenomenon that can stem from a variety of causes, including fear of failure, perfectionism, low levels of self-control, a tendency to see projects as a whole rather than breaking them into smaller parts, being p.r.o.ne to boredom, the feeling that life is too short to worry about seemingly unimportant tasks, and an inability to accurately estimate how long it takes to do things.However, the good news is that the problem can be overcome using a technique first uncovered during an informal observation of waiters.According to research lore, in the 1920s a young Russian psychology graduate named Bluma Zeigarnik found herself in a Viennese cafe, taking tea with her supervisor. Being students of human nature, they were watching how the waiters and customers behaved, and they happened to notice a curious phenomenon. When a customer asked for the check, the waiters could easily remember the food that had been ordered. However, if the customer paid the check and then queried it a few moments later, the waiters had to struggle to remember anything about the order. It seemed that the act of paying for the meal brought a sense of closure as far as the waiters were concerned, and erased the order from their memories.Zeigarnik was curious, and she returned to the laboratory to test an idea. She asked people to do a number of simple tasks (such as stacking wooden blocks or placing toys in a box), but sometimes she stopped the partic.i.p.ants before they had finished the a.s.signed task. At the end of the experiment, the partic.i.p.ants were told to describe all of the tasks. As with her observations of waiters, Zeigarnik found that the unfinished tasks stuck in people's minds and so were far easier to remember.8According to Zeigarnik, starting any activity causes your mind to experience a kind of psychic anxiety. Once the activity is completed, your mind breathes an unconscious sigh of relief, and all is forgotten. However, if you are somehow thwarted from completing the activity, your anxious mind quietly nags away until you finish what you started.What has this got to do with procrastination? Procrastinators frequently put off starting certain activities because they are overwhelmed by the size of the job in front of them. However, if they can be persuaded, or can persuade themselves, to work on the activity for "just a few minutes," they often feel an urge to see it through to completion. Research shows that the "just a few minutes" rule is a highly effective way of beating procrastination and could help people finish the most arduous of tasks.9 It is also a perfect application of Zeigarnik's work-those few minutes of initial activity create an anxious brain that refuses to rest until the job is finished. It is also a perfect application of Zeigarnik's work-those few minutes of initial activity create an anxious brain that refuses to rest until the job is finished.Zeigarnik's work on the psychology of unfinished activity is just one example of her fascinating research. On another occasion she attempted to restore movement to patients paralyzed by hysteria by having a stooge dressed in a military uniform suddenly enter the room and order the patient to stand. Unfortunately, the results of that study have been lost in the mists of time, although one recent Russian biographer noted that it is no longer possible to repeat the study, as it is impossible to find anyone in Russia who holds the required reverent att.i.tude toward either the military or political figures.10 DOUBLETHINK.

At the beginning of this chapter I described how research conducted by psychologists Lien Pham and Sh.e.l.ley Taylor showed that asking students to visualize themselves doing well on an important exam caused them to study less and make lower grades. In fact, I described only one part of their fascinating study. While one group of partic.i.p.ants was busy seeing themselves as A students, another group was asked to spend a few moments each day imagining the process process of revision by visualizing when, where, and how they intended to study. A third group of students acted as a control, doing no exercises at all. Compared to the control group and to the group who were visualizing themselves as A students, the students who imagined themselves going through the process of studying spent significantly more time revising and eventually earned higher exam grades. According to the researchers, visualizing the process of study proved especially effective at reducing exam-related anxiety and helped students better plan and manage their workload. Subsequent research has shown that the same effect occurs in several different areas, with, for example, tennis players and golfers benefiting far more from imagining themselves training than winning. of revision by visualizing when, where, and how they intended to study. A third group of students acted as a control, doing no exercises at all. Compared to the control group and to the group who were visualizing themselves as A students, the students who imagined themselves going through the process of studying spent significantly more time revising and eventually earned higher exam grades. According to the researchers, visualizing the process of study proved especially effective at reducing exam-related anxiety and helped students better plan and manage their workload. Subsequent research has shown that the same effect occurs in several different areas, with, for example, tennis players and golfers benefiting far more from imagining themselves training than winning.11 Additional work, conducted by Lisa Libby from Ohio State University and her colleagues, suggests that the type of "behavioral commitments" involved in such visualization exercises can be made even more effective by seeing yourself as others see you.12 In this study, conducted one day before the 2004 American presidential election, more than a hundred voters were asked to imagine themselves going to the polling booth the following day. One group was told to carry out the visualization exercise from a first-person perspective (seeing the world through their own eyes), while another group was instructed to carry out the same task from a third-person perspective (seeing themselves as someone else would see them). Remarkably, 90 percent of those who imagined themselves from a third-person perspective went on to vote, compared with just more than 70 percent of those who employed first-person visualization. Although the explanation for the effect is uncertain, it could be that adopting a third-person perspective requires more mental effort than a first-person one and so results in more significant behavioral changes. In this study, conducted one day before the 2004 American presidential election, more than a hundred voters were asked to imagine themselves going to the polling booth the following day. One group was told to carry out the visualization exercise from a first-person perspective (seeing the world through their own eyes), while another group was instructed to carry out the same task from a third-person perspective (seeing themselves as someone else would see them). Remarkably, 90 percent of those who imagined themselves from a third-person perspective went on to vote, compared with just more than 70 percent of those who employed first-person visualization. Although the explanation for the effect is uncertain, it could be that adopting a third-person perspective requires more mental effort than a first-person one and so results in more significant behavioral changes.

Other researchers have developed "super-strength" visualization tools that aim to combine the motivational effects of imagining yourself doing well with the practical benefits a.s.sociated with thinking about whatever is required to achieve your aim. Much of this research has been conducted by Gabriele Oettingen at the University of Pennsylvania and involves a little bit of Orwellian doublethink.

In 1984 1984, George Orwell introduced the concept of "doublethink," describing it as simultaneously holding two opposing beliefs in your mind and yet accepting both. In Orwell's novel, this technique was used by a totalitarian government to continuously rewrite history and thus control the populace. However, recent research has shown that the same type of idea can be used in a more productive way, helping people to achieve their goals and ambitions. Oettingen speculated that one of the most effective states of mind involves people being optimistic about achieving their goal but also realistic about some of the problems that they may encounter. To investigate, she developed a novel procedure that encouraged people to hold both types of thought in mind, and she then carried out a series of studies to a.s.sess its effectiveness.

The procedure is simple. People are asked to think about something they want to achieve, such as losing weight, learning a new skill, or changing their drinking habits. Next, they are told to spend a few moments fantasizing about reaching the goal and to note the top two benefits that would flow from such an achievement. After this, they are asked to spend another few moments reflecting on the kinds of barriers and problems that they are likely to encounter if they attempt to fulfill their ambition, and again, make a note of the top two issues. Now comes the doublethink. People are asked to reflect on their first benefit, elaborating on how it would make their life more enjoyable. Immediately afterward, they are asked to think about the biggest hurdle to such success, focusing on what they would do if they encountered the difficulty. Then they repeat the same process for the second positive aspect of achieving their aim and the second potential problem.

In several experiments, Oettingen discovered that this procedure provides the best of both worlds. When people focused on an existing relations.h.i.+p that they wanted to improve, those engaging in doublethink were more successful than those who just fantasized or focused on the negatives.13 Returning to the theme of romance, she applied the doublethink procedure to students harboring a secret crush. Those who employed the fantasy-reality technique were more successful than those who merely dreamed about their perfect date or dwelled solely on the difficulties of revealing their true feelings. Returning to the theme of romance, she applied the doublethink procedure to students harboring a secret crush. Those who employed the fantasy-reality technique were more successful than those who merely dreamed about their perfect date or dwelled solely on the difficulties of revealing their true feelings.14 Additional work has used the doublethink procedure to encourage employees to become more involved in training courses; nurses to build better relations.h.i.+ps with patients' family members and show greater commitment to best practice; and middle managers to make better decisions, delegate more effectively, and improve their time-management skills. Additional work has used the doublethink procedure to encourage employees to become more involved in training courses; nurses to build better relations.h.i.+ps with patients' family members and show greater commitment to best practice; and middle managers to make better decisions, delegate more effectively, and improve their time-management skills.15 The research shows that it is is possible to use visualization to motivate. The solution is a question of balance, interleaving the benefits of achievement with a realistic a.s.sessment of the problems that could be encountered. In short, doublethink. possible to use visualization to motivate. The solution is a question of balance, interleaving the benefits of achievement with a realistic a.s.sessment of the problems that could be encountered. In short, doublethink.

IN 59 SECONDS.

The following procedure, based on the doublethink procedure, can be used to motivate you to achieve your goals and persevere in the face of difficulties.

1. What is your goal?

2. Potential benefits and setbacks QUESTION A.

Write down one word that would reflect an important way in which your life would be better if you achieved your goal.

QUESTION B.

Write down one word that would reflect a significant barrier that stands in the way of achieving your goal.

QUESTION C.

Write down one word that would reflect another important way in which your life would be better if you achieved your goal.

QUESTION D.

Write down one word that would reflect another significant barrier that stands in the way of achieving your goal.

3. Elaboration Elaborate your answer to Question A.

Imagine all of the benefits that would flow from this achievement and note your ideas in the s.p.a.ce below.

Elaborate your answer to Question B.

Imagine how the obstacle hinders achievement and the steps that you would take to deal with it and note your ideas in the s.p.a.ce below.

Elaborate your answer to Question C.

Imagine all of the benefits that would flow from this achievement and note your ideas in the s.p.a.ce below.

Elaborate your answer to Question D.

Imagine how the obstacle hinders achievement and the steps that you would take to deal with it and note your ideas in the s.p.a.ce below.

DIETING AND DRINKING.

Surveys show that most people attempt to diet or to cut down on their drinking at some point in their lives. However, the same surveys also suggest that the vast majority fails, often blaming their downfall on a lack of motivation. Part of the problem is that people do not tend to follow their gut instincts when starting and stopping. Instead, they are unknowingly influenced by a wide range of factors. Brian Wansink at Cornell University has devoted his academic career to understanding some of the factors at work, and his results ill.u.s.trate just how much irrationality surrounds the dinner table.

In one study Wansink and his colleagues speculated that people's decisions about whether to continue eating might be unconsciously determined by a surprisingly simple question: "Have I finished my food?"16 Wansink therefore created a soup bowl with a special bottom, by which he could secretly and continuously refill the bowl via a concealed tube. Groups of partic.i.p.ants sat around a table, chatting and tasting soup for twenty minutes, and then gave their opinion about the soup to the experimenters. Without being aware, half of them were taking their soup from a "bottomless bowl" that was being continuously refilled, while the others had normal bowls. Wansink therefore created a soup bowl with a special bottom, by which he could secretly and continuously refill the bowl via a concealed tube. Groups of partic.i.p.ants sat around a table, chatting and tasting soup for twenty minutes, and then gave their opinion about the soup to the experimenters. Without being aware, half of them were taking their soup from a "bottomless bowl" that was being continuously refilled, while the others had normal bowls.

Those with the bottomless bowls consumed more than 75 percent more soup than those with a normal bowl. In addition, those who consumed more weren't aware of how much they had eaten, and said that they were no less hungry than those who had consumed a normal portion.

However, there is some consolation in realizing that by understanding a few of the hidden factors that influence consumption, we can create quick but effective techniques for cutting the extent of our eating and drinking.

IN 59 SECONDS.

The Power of Slow Some research suggests that eating more slowly helps people eat less, perhaps because it fools our brains into thinking that we've eaten more and allows extra time for the body to digest food.17 In an additional twist on this work, Corby Martin and his colleagues at the Pennington Biomedical Research Center had overweight partic.i.p.ants eat a lunchtime meal at three different speeds: (1) their normal rate, (2) half their normal rate, or (3) their normal rate to begin with, followed by half their normal rate. In an additional twist on this work, Corby Martin and his colleagues at the Pennington Biomedical Research Center had overweight partic.i.p.ants eat a lunchtime meal at three different speeds: (1) their normal rate, (2) half their normal rate, or (3) their normal rate to begin with, followed by half their normal rate.18 Eating at the slower rate resulted in men, but not women, eating less. However, starting the meal at a normal rate of eating and then dropping to the slower rate caused both men and women to experience a large reduction in their appet.i.te. The normal-slow combination was even more effective than eating slowly all the way through the meal, suggesting that the secret to feeling satisfied is to start at your normal speed but then savor each and every mouthful. Eating at the slower rate resulted in men, but not women, eating less. However, starting the meal at a normal rate of eating and then dropping to the slower rate caused both men and women to experience a large reduction in their appet.i.te. The normal-slow combination was even more effective than eating slowly all the way through the meal, suggesting that the secret to feeling satisfied is to start at your normal speed but then savor each and every mouthful.

Make Mine a Tall, Thin One Brian Wansink and Koert van Ittersum, at Cornell University, asked students to pour a single shot of whiskey from a full bottle into a gla.s.s.19 Those given a short, wide gla.s.s poured, on average, 30 percent larger shots than those given a tall, narrower gla.s.s. It seems that people used the depth of the liquid as an indicator of the amount of liquid in the gla.s.s, not noticing that one gla.s.s was far wider than the other. The researchers then repeated the experiment with experienced bartenders and discovered that they poured, on average, 20 percent larger shots into the short, wide gla.s.s. If you want to reduce your drinking, stay away from short, wide gla.s.ses and stick to tall, narrow ones. Those given a short, wide gla.s.s poured, on average, 30 percent larger shots than those given a tall, narrower gla.s.s. It seems that people used the depth of the liquid as an indicator of the amount of liquid in the gla.s.s, not noticing that one gla.s.s was far wider than the other. The researchers then repeated the experiment with experienced bartenders and discovered that they poured, on average, 20 percent larger shots into the short, wide gla.s.s. If you want to reduce your drinking, stay away from short, wide gla.s.ses and stick to tall, narrow ones.

Out of Sight, Out of Mind Research shows that just placing food or drink out of sight or moving it a few feet away can have a big effect on consumption. In a series of studies, experimenters strategically placed jars of chocolates around an office and carefully counted how many were consumed.20 In one condition, they compared placing the jars on people's desks with moving them just six feet away. In another, they placed the chocolates in either transparent or opaque jars. Placing the chocolates on people's desks resulted in the staff's consuming an average of six more chocolates per person each day, and the chocolates in transparent jars were eaten 46 percent more quickly than those in opaque jars. A similar principle applies to food around the house. In another study (described in the snappily t.i.tled paper "When Are Stockpiled Products Consumed Faster? A Convenience-Salience Framework of Post-Purchase Consumption Incidence and Quant.i.ty"), researchers stocked people's homes with either large or moderate quant.i.ties of ready-to-eat meals and discovered that the food was eaten at twice the rate in the overstocked homes. In one condition, they compared placing the jars on people's desks with moving them just six feet away. In another, they placed the chocolates in either transparent or opaque jars. Placing the chocolates on people's desks resulted in the staff's consuming an average of six more chocolates per person each day, and the chocolates in transparent jars were eaten 46 percent more quickly than those in opaque jars. A similar principle applies to food around the house. In another study (described in the snappily t.i.tled paper "When Are Stockpiled Products Consumed Faster? A Convenience-Salience Framework of Post-Purchase Consumption Incidence and Quant.i.ty"), researchers stocked people's homes with either large or moderate quant.i.ties of ready-to-eat meals and discovered that the food was eaten at twice the rate in the overstocked homes.21 To cut intake, make sure that tempting foods are out of sight, stored in a place that is difficult to access, such as a high cabinet or the bas.e.m.e.nt. To cut intake, make sure that tempting foods are out of sight, stored in a place that is difficult to access, such as a high cabinet or the bas.e.m.e.nt.

Focus, Focus, Focus People eat significantly more when they are distracted at mealtimes and therefore are not paying attention to their food. In one experiment, the amount of attention that moviegoers paid to a film was related to how much popcorn they consumed. Those who were more absorbed by the movie ate significantly larger amounts.22 In another experiment, people who listened to a detective story during their lunchtime ate 15 percent more food than those who sat in silence. In another experiment, people who listened to a detective story during their lunchtime ate 15 percent more food than those who sat in silence.23 Distractions while eating, such as watching television, reading a magazine, or even chatting with others, encourage people to consume more. Distractions while eating, such as watching television, reading a magazine, or even chatting with others, encourage people to consume more.

Beware of Large Bowls Is the amount you eat influenced by the size of bowls and spoons? A few years ago, Brian Wansink invited a group of friends to a party at which he secretly conducted an experiment.24 Each guest was randomly handed either a 17- or 34-ounce bowl and a 2- or 3-ounce spoon. The guests then helped themselves to ice cream. However, seconds before they took their first mouthful, the researchers s.n.a.t.c.hed the bowls and weighed them. The results revealed that those given the large spoons and large bowls had, on average, taken 14 percent and 31 percent more ice cream than their modestly equipped companions did. Andrew Geier and his colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania demonstrated that the effect is not confined to ice cream and parties. Each guest was randomly handed either a 17- or 34-ounce bowl and a 2- or 3-ounce spoon. The guests then helped themselves to ice cream. However, seconds before they took their first mouthful, the researchers s.n.a.t.c.hed the bowls and weighed them. The results revealed that those given the large spoons and large bowls had, on average, taken 14 percent and 31 percent more ice cream than their modestly equipped companions did. Andrew Geier and his colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania demonstrated that the effect is not confined to ice cream and parties.25 In their study, a bowl of M&M's was left in the hallway of an apartment building, along with a spoon and a sign saying, "Eat your fill: please use the spoon to serve yourself." On some days the experimenters placed a tablespoon-sized scoop next to the bowl, and on others they used a larger scoop. The findings revealed that the larger spoon caused people to take almost twice as many M&M's from the bowl. Try cutting down on your eating by using smaller bowls, plates, and cutlery. In their study, a bowl of M&M's was left in the hallway of an apartment building, along with a spoon and a sign saying, "Eat your fill: please use the spoon to serve yourself." On some days the experimenters placed a tablespoon-sized scoop next to the bowl, and on others they used a larger scoop. The findings revealed that the larger spoon caused people to take almost twice as many M&M's from the bowl. Try cutting down on your eating by using smaller bowls, plates, and cutlery.

Keep a Food Diary Research conducted by Kaiser Permanente Center for Health Research suggests that making a note of how much you eat can help you lose weight.26 During the study, partic.i.p.ants who kept daily food records lost twice as much weight as those who kept none. You don't need to turn into a veritable Samuel Pepys to gain the benefits; just scribbling down what you eat on a Post-it note or sending yourself an e-mail has the same effect. According to the theory, becoming aware of what you are eating on a daily basis will help you break old habits and consume less. During the study, partic.i.p.ants who kept daily food records lost twice as much weight as those who kept none. You don't need to turn into a veritable Samuel Pepys to gain the benefits; just scribbling down what you eat on a Post-it note or sending yourself an e-mail has the same effect. According to the theory, becoming aware of what you are eating on a daily basis will help you break old habits and consume less.

Regret and Reflection Not happy with your body but finding it difficult to motivate yourself to go to the gym? Try harnessing the power of regret and avoiding reflection. Research conducted by Charles Abraham and Paschal Sheeran has shown that just a few moments' thinking about how much you will regret not not going to the gym will help motivate you to climb off the couch and onto an exercise bike. going to the gym will help motivate you to climb off the couch and onto an exercise bike.27 And once you get there, avoid those imposing floor-to-ceiling mirrors. Other work, by Kathleen Martin Ginis and her colleagues at McMaster University, compared people pedaling on an exercise cycle in front of a mirror to those pedaling in front of a bare wall. The results revealed that the group who constantly saw themselves in the mirror ended up feeling significantly less revitalized and more exhausted than the group who faced the wall. Researchers believe that the mirrors may encourage people to focus on their less-than-perfect bodies and consequently to do more harm than good. And once you get there, avoid those imposing floor-to-ceiling mirrors. Other work, by Kathleen Martin Ginis and her colleagues at McMaster University, compared people pedaling on an exercise cycle in front of a mirror to those pedaling in front of a bare wall. The results revealed that the group who constantly saw themselves in the mirror ended up feeling significantly less revitalized and more exhausted than the group who faced the wall. Researchers believe that the mirrors may encourage people to focus on their less-than-perfect bodies and consequently to do more harm than good.28 Use More Energy Think about how you could burn more calories by making small changes to your everyday routine. It might be something as simple as using wax polish rather than a spray during housework (rubbing is a far more energy-consuming activity than spraying), ensuring that you have to use the stairs more often (e.g., not taking the elevator at work or alternating floors when doing housework), or listening to upbeat music to encourage vigorous movement when you are walking or mowing the lawn.

Mirror, Mirror, on the Kitchen Wall Work conducted by Stacey Sentyrz and Brad Bushman, at Iowa State University, suggests that placing a mirror in your kitchen may help you shed pounds.29 In several studies, partic.i.p.ants were given the opportunity to eat healthy or unhealthy food. In one study, in a supermarket, almost a thousand shoppers were presented with the option of trying new types of full-fat or no-fat margarine. Half of the time a mirror was strategically placed behind the spreads to ensure that the partic.i.p.ants could see their own reflection, and the other half of the time it was removed. The presence of the mirror resulted in a remarkable 32 percent reduction in trying the full-fat margarine. The researchers argued that seeing your own reflection makes you more aware of your body. In several studies, partic.i.p.ants were given the opportunity to eat healthy or unhealthy food. In one study, in a supermarket, almost a thousand shoppers were presented with the option of trying new types of full-fat or no-fat margarine. Half of the time a mirror was strategically placed behind the spreads to ensure that the partic.i.p.ants could see their own reflection, and the other half of the time it was removed. The presence of the mirror resulted in a remarkable 32 percent reduction in trying the full-fat margarine. The researchers argued that seeing your own reflection makes you more aware of your body.

The Pitfalls of Diet Packs Supermarket aisles are full of small-portion "diet packs" of snacks that will help you control your craving and so eat less. But will buying such packs really help you cut down on consumption? To find out, researchers at Tilburg University in the Netherlands gave partic.i.p.ants either two bags of potato chips or nine diet packs and asked them to watch TV.30 Before tucking into their treats and TV, partic.i.p.ants were weighed in front of a mirror to create a "dieting mind-set." The results revealed that partic.i.p.ants given the diet bags ate twice as many chips as those given the large bags. The researchers speculated that the partic.i.p.ants given the diet packs felt they didn't need to exercise so much self-control and thus ended up eating more. Before tucking into their treats and TV, partic.i.p.ants were weighed in front of a mirror to create a "dieting mind-set." The results revealed that partic.i.p.ants given the diet bags ate twice as many chips as those given the large bags. The researchers speculated that the partic.i.p.ants given the diet packs felt they didn't need to exercise so much self-control and thus ended up eating more.

THE BENEFITS OF WRITING YOUR OWN EULOGYIn Charles d.i.c.kens's A Christmas Carol A Christmas Carol, Ebenezer Scrooge is visited by three ghostly figures. The first two, the Ghost of Christmas Past and the Ghost of Christmas Present, show how Scrooge's selfishness has made his life lonely and miserable. It is only when the Ghost of Christmas Future appears and leads him to his ill-kept and forgotten grave that Scrooge finally changes his character and becomes a far more giving and compa.s.sionate person. d.i.c.kens looked at the effect of taking a long-term view and the contemplation of life after death, but a large number of psychologists have done the same, and their findings suggest that Scrooge's fictional transformation can also occur in real life.In one study, people were stopped in the street and asked to use a 10-point scale to rate how they felt about their favorite charities ("How beneficial is this charity to society?" "How much do you think society needs this charity?" and "How desirable is this charity to you personally?").31 Some of the people were stopped as they walked past a funeral home, while others were stopped a few blocks later, in front of a nondescript building. When interviewing people in front of the funeral home, researchers positioned themselves so as to ensure that partic.i.p.ants were forced to face a large sign reading "Howe's Mortuary." The results revealed a Scrooge-like effect, with those facing up to their own death feeling far more benevolent than those standing in front of the nondescript building. Some of the people were stopped as they walked past a funeral home, while others were stopped a few blocks later, in front of a nondescript building. When interviewing people in front of the funeral home, researchers positioned themselves so as to ensure that partic.i.p.ants were forced to face a large sign reading "Howe's Mortuary." The results revealed a Scrooge-like effect, with those facing up to their own death feeling far more benevolent than those standing in front of the nondescript building.Christopher Peterson at the University of Michigan believes that encouraging people to consider how they would like to be remembered after their death has various motivational benefits, including helping them to identify their long-term goals and a.s.sess the degree to which they are progressing toward making those goals a reality.32 So, with no further ado, let's evoke your own Ghost of Christmas Future. So, with no further ado, let's evoke your own Ghost of Christmas Future.Imagine a close friend standing up at your funeral and presenting your ideal eulogy. Write the script for your friend. What would you really like them to say about you? Feel free to avoid any sense of modesty, but keep it realistic. How would you want them to describe your personality, achievements, personal strengths, family life, professional success, and behavior toward others? When you have finished writing, take a long and honest look at the eulogy for your ideal self. Do your present lifestyle and behavior justify the comments, or is there work to be done?

creativity Exploding the myth myth of brainstorming, of brainstorming, how to get in touch with your inner Leonardo inner Leonardo merely by glancing glancing at modern art, at modern art, lying down, and putting a plant plant on your desk on your desk

IN THE EARLY 1940s, advertising executive Alex Osborn argued that it was possible to enhance creativity by putting a group of people in a room and having them follow a set of simple rules involving, for example, coming up with as many thoughts as possible, encouraging wild and exaggerated ideas, and not criticizing or evaluating anyone's comments. When selling his approach to businesses, Osborn claimed that "the average person thinks up twice as many ideas when working with a group than when working alone," and, perhaps not surprisingly, his novel approach quickly conquered the world.1 Over the years, organizations around the globe have encouraged their employees to tackle key problems using this approach. Over the years, organizations around the globe have encouraged their employees to tackle key problems using this approach.

Researchers have gone to a great deal of trouble to test the effectiveness of group brainstorming. In a typical experiment, partic.i.p.ants arrive in a group. Half of them are randomly chosen to be in the "work as a group" condition and are placed in one room. They are given standard brainstorming rules and have to come up with ideas to solve a specific problem (perhaps design a new ad campaign or find ways of easing traffic congestion). The other half of the partic.i.p.ants are asked to sit alone in separate rooms, are given exactly the same instructions and tasks, and asked to generate ideas on their own. Researchers then tally the quant.i.ty of ideas produced under the different conditions, and experts rate their quality. So do such studies show that group brainstorming is more effective than individuals working alone? Many scientists are far from convinced. For example, Brian Mullen, at the University of Kent at Canterbury, and his colleagues a.n.a.lyzed twenty studies that tested the effectiveness of group brainstorming in this way and were amazed to discover that in the majority of the experiments, the partic.i.p.ants working on their own produced a higher quant.i.ty and quality of ideas than those working in groups.2 Other research suggests that group brainstorming may fail, in part, because of a phenomenon known as "social loafing." In the late 1880s, a French agricultural engineer named Max Ringelmann became obsessed with trying to make workers as efficient as possible.3 After carrying out hundreds of experiments, he inadvertently stumbled upon an unexpected effect that would inspire a century of psychological research. One of Ringelmann's studies involved asking people to pull on a rope to lift increasingly heavy weights. Perhaps not unreasonably, Ringelmann expected people in groups to work harder than those on their own. But the results revealed the opposite pattern. When working alone, individuals lifted around 185 pounds, but they managed only an average of 140 pounds per person when working as a group. Additional work revealed that the phenomenon, like the "bystander" effect described in the "Persuasion" chapter, is largely the result of a diffusion of responsibility. After carrying out hundreds of experiments, he inadvertently stumbled upon an unexpected effect that would inspire a century of psychological research. One of Ringelmann's studies involved asking people to pull on a rope to lift increasingly heavy weights. Perhaps not unreasonably, Ringelmann expected people in groups to work harder than those on their own. But the results revealed the opposite pattern. When working alone, individuals lifted around 185 pounds, but they managed only an average of 140 pounds per person when working as a group. Additional work revealed that the phenomenon, like the "bystander" effect described in the "Persuasion" chapter, is largely the result of a diffusion of responsibility.4 When people work on their own, their success or failure is entirely the result of their own abilities and hard work. If they do well, the glory is theirs. If they fail, they alone are accountable. However, add other people to the situation, and suddenly everyone stops trying so hard, safe in the knowledge that though individuals will not receive personal praise if the group does well, they can always blame others if it performs badly. When people work on their own, their success or failure is entirely the result of their own abilities and hard work. If they do well, the glory is theirs. If they fail, they alone are accountable. However, add other people to the situation, and suddenly everyone stops trying so hard, safe in the knowledge that though individuals will not receive personal praise if the group does well, they can always blame others if it performs badly.

Research shows that this phenomenon occurs in many different situations.5 Ask people to make as much noise as possible, and they make more on their own than in a group. Ask them to add rows of numbers, and the more people involved, the lower the work rate. Ask them to come up with ideas, and people are more creative away from the crowd. It is a universal phenomenon, emerging in studies conducted around the world, including in America, India, Thailand, and j.a.pan. Ask people to make as much noise as possible, and they make more on their own than in a group. Ask them to add rows of numbers, and the more people involved, the lower the work rate. Ask them to come up with ideas, and people are more creative away from the crowd. It is a universal phenomenon, emerging in studies conducted around the world, including in America, India, Thailand, and j.a.pan.

In short, a large body of research now suggests that for more than seventy years, people using group brainstorming may have inadvertently been stifling, not stimulating, their creative juices. When working together they aren't as motivated to put in the time and energy needed to generate great ideas, and so they end up spending more time thinking inside the box.

So, when it comes to creativity, is it simply a case of staying away from the pack? No. In fact, other research shows that if you really want to get in touch with your inner Leonardo da Vinci, there are several quick and surprisingly powerful techniques available. All it takes is a glance at the right type of modern art, lying down on the job, doing nothing, or putting a plant on your desk.

TESTING FOR CREATIVITYPsychologists have developed lots of weird and wonderful ways of testing for creativity. People have been presented with a paper clip and given a few minutes to create as many uses for it as possible. They have been given a pencil and a sheet of paper with a square grid drawn on it and asked to make each square into a different object (e.g., television, fish tank, book, etc.). In both cases, the number of responses would be counted and judged for originality by comparison to the responses from all of those taking part. Researchers also often use various types of visual and verbal lateral-thinking problems. Try the following questions to test this aspect of your creativity: 1. Can you add a single line to the following equation to make it correct? (There is just one rule-you are not allowed to place the line through the equal sign like this: , thus converting it into a "not equal" sign.) 10 10 11 = 10:50.

2. Joanna and Jackie were born on the same day of the same month of the same year. They have the same mother and father, yet they are not twins. How is that possible?

3. A man has married twenty different women in the same town. All are still alive, and he never divorced any of them. Polygamy is unlawful, yet the man has not broken the law. How is this possible?

4. A man walks into an antiques shop and offers to sell a beautiful bronze coin. One side of the coin contains a wonderful image of a Roman emperor's head, while the other shows the date as 500 B.C. The antiques dealer instantly knows that the coin does not date back to 500 B.C. Why?

Answers 1. This is all about time. By adding a short line over the second "1," you convert the number "10" into the word "TO," and now the equation reads "ten to eleven, which is the same as ten fifty."

10 TO 11 = 10:50.

2. Joanna and Jackie are part of a set of triplets.

3. The man is a minister and so presided over the wedding ceremonies.

4. The year 500 B.C B.C. predates the birth of Christ, and thus a coin from that time would not be inscribed with an abbreviation for "Before Christ."

LISTENING TO THE QUIET GUY.

Surrealist Salvador Dali would sometimes generate ideas for his paintings by using an interesting technique. He would lie on a couch and put a gla.s.s on the floor. He would then carefully place one end of a spoon on the edge of the gla.s.s and lightly hold the other end in his hand. As he drifted off to sleep, he would naturally relax his hand and release the spoon. The sound of the spoon falling into the gla.s.s would wake him up, and he would immediately sketch the bizarre images that had just started to drift through his half-asleep, semiconscious mind. In view of the impractical nature of so many of his ideas (think lobster telephone), clearly this technique might not be for everyone, but that is not to say that your unconscious mind is not a powerhouse of creative thought.

In fact, several studies suggest that when it comes to innovative ways of looking at the world, there may be a lot more going on in your unconscious mind than you realize. In a simple experimental demonstration of this, Stephen Smith at Texas A&M University presented volunteers with pictureword puzzles that suggested common phrases and asked them to solve as many as possible.6 For example, they might be asked to identify the phrase indicated in the following set of words: For example, they might be asked to identify the phrase indicated in the following set of words: YOU JUST METhe answer is "just between you and me." Now that you have the general idea, try these three:SALE SALE SALE SALESTANDIBRO KEN The answers are "for sale," "I understand," and "broken in half." In Smith's experiment, if a puzzle was unsolved, the volunteers were told to relax for fifteen minutes and then try the puzzle again. More than a third of the puzzles were solved on the second attempt. While relaxing, the volunteers were not working on the puzzles consciously, but their unconscious thoughts devised new and helpful perspectives on the puzzles.

Recent work suggests that you don't even need to spend as long as fifteen minutes away from a problem. Instead, you can achieve the same results with just a few moments' respite.

Psychologists Ap Dijksterhuis and Teun Meurs at the University of Amsterdam carried out a series of fascinating experiments on creativity and the unconscious.7 Their ideas about the nature of the unconscious mind and creativity are simple to understand. Imagine two men in a room. One of them is highly creative but very shy. The other is clever, not as creative, and far more domineering. Now imagine going into the room and asking them to come up with ideas for a campaign to advertise a new type of chocolate bar. True to form, the loud but not especially creative man dominates the conversation. He does not allow his quieter counterpart to contribute, and the ideas produced are good but not very innovative.

Now let's imagine a slightly different scenario. Again, you walk into the room and ask for campaign ideas. However, this time you distract the loud man by getting him to watch a film. Under these circ.u.mstances, the quiet man is able to make his voice heard, and you walk away with a completely different, and far more creative, set of ideas. In many ways, this is a good a.n.a.logy for the relations.h.i.+p between your mind and creativity. The quiet guy represents your unconscious mind. It is capable of wonderful ideas, but they are often difficult to hear. The loud guy represents your conscious mind-clever, not as innovative, but difficult to get out of your head.

Dijksterhuis conducted a series of experiments to find out whether people might become more creative if their conscious minds were distracted. In perhaps the best known of these studies, volunteers were asked to devise new and creative names for pasta. To help them, the experimenters started by presenting five new names, all of which ended with the letter i i and thus sounded like typical pasta possibilities. Some of the volunteers were then given three minutes to think before listing their ideas. In terms of the "two guys in the room" a.n.a.logy, these volunteers were listening to the comments of the loud, and not especially creative, guy in their heads. Another group of volunteers was asked to forget about the pasta and instead spend three minutes performing a mentally challenging task-carefully tracking a dot as it moved around a computer screen and clicking the s.p.a.ce bar whenever it changed color. In terms of the room a.n.a.logy, this task was designed to distract the loud guy and give the quiet man a chance to have his voice heard. Only after completing this difficult and attention-sapping task were the partic.i.p.ants asked to list some new names for pasta. and thus sounded like typical pasta possibilities. Some of the volunteers were then given three minutes to think before listing their ideas. In terms of the "two guys in the room" a.n.a.logy, these volunteers were listening to the comments of the loud, and not especially creative, guy in their heads. Another group of volunteers was asked to forget about the pasta and instead spend three minutes performing a mentally challenging task-carefully tracking a dot as it moved around a computer screen and clicking the s.p.a.ce bar whenever it changed color. In terms of the room a.n.a.logy, this task was designed to distract the loud guy and give the quiet man a chance to have his voice heard. Only after completing this difficult and attention-sapping task were the partic.i.p.ants asked to list some new names for pasta.

The researchers developed a simple, no-nonsense, and ingenious way of deciding whether the pasta names suggested by volunteers should be categorized as creative or uncreative. They worked through all of the suggestions, carefully counting the number of times that a pasta name ending in i i versus another letter was proposed. Since the five examples given at the start of the experiment all ended with versus another letter was proposed. Since the five examples given at the start of the experiment all ended with i i, they concluded that any suggestion also ending in i i was evidence that people were simply following the crowd and being uncreative, whereas those names ending in another letter were more innovative. was evidence that people were simply following the crowd and being uncreative, whereas those names ending in another letter were more innovative.

The results were interesting. The volunteers who had been consciously thinking about the task produced more pasta names ending in i i than did those who had been busy chasing a dot around a computer screen. In contrast, when the more unusual pasta names were examined, the dot-chasing volunteers produced almost twice as many suggestions as those in the other groups. than did those who had been busy chasing a dot around a computer screen. In contrast, when the more unusual pasta names were examined, the dot-chasing volunteers produced almost twice as many suggestions as those in the other groups.

These startling findings yielded considerable insight into the relations.h.i.+p between creativity and the unconscious. Volunteers in the "follow the dot" condition felt as if all their attention and mental effort were fully engaged in tracking a dot as it moved around a computer screen. However, their unconscious mind was working on the problem at hand. Perhaps more important, it wasn't just reproducing the same work as their conscious mind; it was thinking about things in a very different way. It was being innovative. It was making new connections. It was creating truly original ideas.

Many standard texts on creativity emphasize the value of relaxation. They tell people to take it easy and empty their mind of thoughts. The Dutch research suggests exactly the opposite. Genuine creativity can come from spending just a few moments occupying your conscious mind, thus preventing it from interfering with the important and innovative activity in your unconscious. Everyone can be more creative-it is just a matter of keeping the loud guy in your head busy and giving the quiet guy a chance to speak up.

IN 59 SECONDS.

When you next want to come up with a creative solution to a problem, try the following technique and see what pops into your mind. If the word-search puzzle is not for you, try tackling a difficult crossword puzzle, Sudoku, or any other task that fully occupies your conscious mind.

A. What problem are you trying to solve?

B. Find the ten target words inside the grid. The words might run horizontally, vertically, or diagonally and be either forward or backward. There may also be an overlap between the words.

TARGET WORDS.

SIXTY.

SECONDS.

CREATIVITY.

BOOST.

QUICK.

RAPID.

THINK.

CHANGE.

NEW.

FRESH.

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C. Now, without thinking too much about it, jot down the various thoughts and possible solutions that come to you.

ANSWER.

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GETTING IN TOUCH WITH YOUR INNER GORILLAA few years ago I wrote a book about creativity called Did You Spot the Gorilla? Did You Spot the Gorilla? It outlined four techniques designed to help people think and behave in more flexible and unusual ways. Here are summaries of each of the techniques and some exercises designed to help you implement them. It outlined four techniques designed to help people think and behave in more flexible and unusual ways. Here are summaries of each of the techniques and some exercises designed to help you implement them.Priming. Prime your mind by working feverishly on a problem, but then give yourself a release of effort by doing something completely different. During the release period, feed your mind with new and diverse ideas by, for example, visiting a museum or an art gallery, paging through magazines or newspapers, going on a train or car journey, or randomly searching the Internet. But don't push it. Simply immerse yourself in novel ideas and experiences, and leave it up to your brain to find connections and create seemingly serendipitous events.Perspective. Changing perspective helps produce novel solutions. Try imagining how a child, idiot, friend, artist, or accountant would approach the problem. Alternatively, think about two a.n.a.logous situations by applying the "is like" rule (e.g., "Attracting more people to my business is like is like a street entertainer trying to attract a crowd"). How is the problem solved in these situations? Can this idea be applied to your problem? Finally, think about doing the exact opposite of every solution you have created so far. a street entertainer trying to attract a crowd"). How is the problem solved in these situations? Can this idea be applied to your problem? Finally, think about doing the exact opposite of every solution you have created so far.Play. When you are being too serious, your brain becomes constrained. Jump-start your creativity by having some fun. Take a break for fifteen minutes, watch a funny film, or digitally alter a photograph of your colleague so that he or she looks more like an owl.Perceive. When the world becomes too familiar, your brain reverts to automatic pilot and stops seeing what is right in front of your eyes. Try switching your mind to manual by becoming more curious about the world. Ask yourself an interesting question each week. How do elephants communicate over hundreds of miles? Why do people laugh? Why are bananas yellow? How cmoe yuor bairn is albe to udnertsnad tihs snetence eevn tghouh olny the frist and lsat ltetres of ecah wrod are crreoct? Invest some time and energy in trying to discover possible answers to the question, if only for the fun of it.

NATURE CALLS.

In 1948 George de Mestral went for a stroll in the countryside in his native Switzerland. When he returned home he noticed that his clothing was covered in tiny burs. As he set about the annoying task of removing them one by one, he decided to figure out why they stuck to his clothing. Close examination revealed that the burs were covered with tiny hooks that easily attached themselves to the loops in fabric. Inspired by this simple concept, de Mestral wondered whether the same idea could be used to attach other surfaces together, a thought that eventually resulted in his inventing Velcro.

De Mestral's story is frequently cited as evidence for one of the most important principles underlying creativity: the realization that an idea or technique from one situation can be applied to another. This principle certainly appears to account for many famous examples of breakthrough thinking, including, for example, Frank Lloyd Wright's finding inspiration for the design of a church roof by noticing the shape of his hands at prayer. However, there may have been another hidden but equally important factor at work.

A significant amount of research has examined the effects of the natural environment on people's thinking and behavior. The work shows that even a small amount of plant life can have a surprisingly large impact on making the world a better place. The recovery rates of patients in hospitals are significantly improved when they are able to see trees from their ward windows,8 and prisoners whose cell windows overlook farmlands and forests report fewer medical problems than others. and prisoners whose cell windows overlook farmlands and forests report fewer medical problems than others.9 The effects are not just confined to prisoners and patients but extend to everyone. Other studies have examined the relations.h.i.+p between greenery and crime. In perhaps the most ingenious of these, researchers focused their attention on a large public-housing development in Chicago. The effects are not just confined to prisoners and patients but extend to everyone. Other studies have examined the relations.h.i.+p between greenery and crime. In perhaps the most ingenious of these, researchers focused their attention on a large public-housing development in Chicago.10 The development was especially interesting for two reasons. First, some sections contained a relatively large number of shrubs and trees, while other areas resembled the proverbial concrete jungle. Second, previous to the study the residents had been randomly a.s.signed to apartments in the development, thus ensuring that any differences in crime rates in the two types of areas could not be the result of income, background, or any other such factors. The study yielded impressive results. The parts of the development that contained greenery were a.s.sociated with 48 percent fewer property crimes and 52 percent fewer violent crimes than those that contained nothing but concrete. The researchers speculated that the greenery may have put people in a good mood and therefore made them less likely to commit crimes. The development was especially interesting for two reasons. First, some sections contained a relatively large number of shrubs and trees, while other areas resembled the proverbial concrete jungle. Second, previous to the study the residents had been randomly a.s.signed to apartments in the development, thus ensuring that any differences in crime rates in the two types of areas could not be the result of income, background, or any other such factors. The study yielded impressive results. The parts of the development that contained greenery were a.s.sociated with 48 percent fewer property crimes and 52 percent fewer violent crimes than those that contained nothing but concrete. The researchers speculated that the greenery may have put people in a good mood and therefore made them less likely to commit crimes.