Beyond The Hundredth Meridian Part 12

11 Chicago Chicago Tribune, Tribune, July 19, 1869. July 19, 1869.

12 Sumner, Journal, June 20, 1869. Sumner, Journal, June 20, 1869.

13 In his letter to In his letter to The Rocky Mountain News, The Rocky Mountain News, July 17, 1869. July 17, 1869.

14 J. W. Powell, J. W. Powell, Exploration of the Colorado River of the West, Exploration of the Colorado River of the West, p. 25. p. 25.

15 One contributing cause of the wreck, as of a lot of their later trouble, was the sluggishness and lack of maneuverability of the boats. One contributing cause of the wreck, as of a lot of their later trouble, was the sluggishness and lack of maneuverability of the boats.

16 Later experience on the river has demonstrated that a free-running boat, especially if unloaded, will generally halt of itself in an eddy or reversing current. The Powell party, without means of knowing this, had every apparent reason to think the Later experience on the river has demonstrated that a free-running boat, especially if unloaded, will generally halt of itself in an eddy or reversing current. The Powell party, without means of knowing this, had every apparent reason to think the Maid of the Canyon Maid of the Canyon was lost. was lost.

17 Dated June 18, 1869; published August 20, 1869. Dated June 18, 1869; published August 20, 1869.

18 Rocky Mountain News, Rocky Mountain News, July 17, 1869. July 17, 1869.

19 Renamed, on the second expedition, Split Mountain Canyon. Renamed, on the second expedition, Split Mountain Canyon.

20 The mouths of White and Uinta have changed their relative position since 1869. The Uinta (now called the d.u.c.h.esne ) now enters the Green nearly opposite the mouth of the White. The mouths of White and Uinta have changed their relative position since 1869. The Uinta (now called the d.u.c.h.esne ) now enters the Green nearly opposite the mouth of the White.

21 Sumner, Journal, July 6, 1869. Sumner, Journal, July 6, 1869.

22 Captain Pardon Dodds, the agent, was away at the time, and Powell dealt with an a.s.sistant named Lake. Dodds was later employed as a guide and packer by Powell's survey, and for a while was a partner with Powell in a Uinta Valley cattle ranch. Captain Pardon Dodds, the agent, was away at the time, and Powell dealt with an a.s.sistant named Lake. Dodds was later employed as a guide and packer by Powell's survey, and for a while was a partner with Powell in a Uinta Valley cattle ranch.

23 Letter to the Denver Letter to the Denver Post, Post, October 13, 1902. See also Stegner, "Jack Sumner and John Wesley Powell." October 13, 1902. See also Stegner, "Jack Sumner and John Wesley Powell."

24 The amount of actual dislike for Walter Powell is hard to a.s.sess. The late and unreliable reminiscences of Sumner and Hawkins make much of it, and ornament their tales with instances of near-fights, always heroically broken up by Hawkins or Sumner, between Walter Powell and Dunn, or Dunn and the Major. Bradley's journal, aside from reporting an increasing dissatisfaction as supplies dwindled and danger grew, makes no specific recording of such incidents; neither does Sumner's journal, and neither do any of Powell's several versions of the trip. But Walter Powell, hurt mentally by the war, was not asked to accompany the second expedition, and according to Darrah The amount of actual dislike for Walter Powell is hard to a.s.sess. The late and unreliable reminiscences of Sumner and Hawkins make much of it, and ornament their tales with instances of near-fights, always heroically broken up by Hawkins or Sumner, between Walter Powell and Dunn, or Dunn and the Major. Bradley's journal, aside from reporting an increasing dissatisfaction as supplies dwindled and danger grew, makes no specific recording of such incidents; neither does Sumner's journal, and neither do any of Powell's several versions of the trip. But Walter Powell, hurt mentally by the war, was not asked to accompany the second expedition, and according to Darrah (Utah Historical Quarterly, (Utah Historical Quarterly, XV, 89) was by the early seventies so unstable that he could not work regularly. He never recovered from his derangement. It is entirely probable that he was a difficult companion on such a tense and strenuous trip as this one. XV, 89) was by the early seventies so unstable that he could not work regularly. He never recovered from his derangement. It is entirely probable that he was a difficult companion on such a tense and strenuous trip as this one.

25 The original of this letter is in the library of the Grand Canyon National Park. It is published in the The original of this letter is in the library of the Grand Canyon National Park. It is published in the Utah Historical Quarterly, Utah Historical Quarterly, XVI-XVII, 506-7. XVI-XVII, 506-7.

9.

1 Accounts differ on the character of this stretch of river. Sumner's journal mentions on July 7 that there is no timber in the canyon, though there is on the summits. The expedition was led to name the stretch Desolation Canyon, and Bradley speaks of the especially desolate view from the rims. But E. O. Beaman's photographs taken in 1871 show straggling trees, and Otis Marston, one of the most experienced of modem river boatmen, has found cottonwoods and greenery all the way along Desolation - perhaps grown since 1869, since cottonwoods are short-lived and fast-growing trees. The natural bridges, he says, are two: one high on the skyline, and one at the head of a side gorge. Accounts differ on the character of this stretch of river. Sumner's journal mentions on July 7 that there is no timber in the canyon, though there is on the summits. The expedition was led to name the stretch Desolation Canyon, and Bradley speaks of the especially desolate view from the rims. But E. O. Beaman's photographs taken in 1871 show straggling trees, and Otis Marston, one of the most experienced of modem river boatmen, has found cottonwoods and greenery all the way along Desolation - perhaps grown since 1869, since cottonwoods are short-lived and fast-growing trees. The natural bridges, he says, are two: one high on the skyline, and one at the head of a side gorge.

2 This rescue, which is the subject of one of the more imaginative ill.u.s.trations in Powell's 1875 This rescue, which is the subject of one of the more imaginative ill.u.s.trations in Powell's 1875 Scribner's Scribner's articles about the voyage, might well have been thought somewhat colored and dramatized if it were not for the corroboration of Bradley's journal entry for July 8: "In one place Major having but one arm couldn't get up so I took off my drawers and they made an excellent subst.i.tute for rope and with that a.s.sistance he got up safe." articles about the voyage, might well have been thought somewhat colored and dramatized if it were not for the corroboration of Bradley's journal entry for July 8: "In one place Major having but one arm couldn't get up so I took off my drawers and they made an excellent subst.i.tute for rope and with that a.s.sistance he got up safe."

3 Here again Marston disagrees with the 1869 journals. Bradley's journal for July 9 speaks of "a succession of rappids or rather a continuous rapid with a succession of cataracts for 20 miles." Sumner's journal for the same date records "20 miles with that number of rapids, some of them very bad." Marston, in a note to the author on February 6, 1953, says, "If they found 20 miles of continuous cataracts the river must have changed. I can find no evidence of a change that marked." Powell's own field journal is missing the entries from July 7-19, inclusive. The records of the second Powell Expedition are of little value for comparison because the second expedition ran this stretch more than a month later in the season, and in very low water. Here again Marston disagrees with the 1869 journals. Bradley's journal for July 9 speaks of "a succession of rappids or rather a continuous rapid with a succession of cataracts for 20 miles." Sumner's journal for the same date records "20 miles with that number of rapids, some of them very bad." Marston, in a note to the author on February 6, 1953, says, "If they found 20 miles of continuous cataracts the river must have changed. I can find no evidence of a change that marked." Powell's own field journal is missing the entries from July 7-19, inclusive. The records of the second Powell Expedition are of little value for comparison because the second expedition ran this stretch more than a month later in the season, and in very low water.

4 Some of Powell's later detractors, notably Stanton and Chalfant, have made much of the fact, established first in Hawkins' reminiscences, that Powell wore a life preserver, as if this fact somehow reduced the heroism of his exploration. It is hard to see how the wearing, of a life preserver by a one-armed man is in any way shameful, or why Powell's failure to mention the existence of the preserver in his Some of Powell's later detractors, notably Stanton and Chalfant, have made much of the fact, established first in Hawkins' reminiscences, that Powell wore a life preserver, as if this fact somehow reduced the heroism of his exploration. It is hard to see how the wearing, of a life preserver by a one-armed man is in any way shameful, or why Powell's failure to mention the existence of the preserver in his Exploration Exploration const.i.tutes deliberate suppression of facts. const.i.tutes deliberate suppression of facts.

5 See Reports of Explorations and Surveys to Ascertain the Most Practicable and Economfcal Route for a Railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, See Reports of Explorations and Surveys to Ascertain the Most Practicable and Economfcal Route for a Railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, made under the direction of the Secretary of War, in 1853-54, Vol. II (Was.h.i.+ngton, 1855). made under the direction of the Secretary of War, in 1853-54, Vol. II (Was.h.i.+ngton, 1855).

6 As has been indicated before, Macomb's map does not seem from any outward evidence to have been known to Powell. It was published in Captain J. N. Macomb, As has been indicated before, Macomb's map does not seem from any outward evidence to have been known to Powell. It was published in Captain J. N. Macomb, Report of the Exploring Expedition from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to the Junction of the Grand and Green Rivers of the Great Colorado of the West, in 1859 Report of the Exploring Expedition from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to the Junction of the Grand and Green Rivers of the Great Colorado of the West, in 1859 (Was.h.i.+ngton, 1876). (Was.h.i.+ngton, 1876).

7 Sumner; Journal, July 16, 1869. Sumner; Journal, July 16, 1869.

10.

1 My account of Adams' journey down the Blue and the Grand is taken from his ma.n.u.script journal. Though there is no real reason for giving much credence to any single detail in either of the versions, I have in general stuck to the original draft, as likely to be somewhat closer to what Adams thought he saw at the time. A dressed-up version, prepared in connection with Adams' claim for compensation from the United States, is in My account of Adams' journey down the Blue and the Grand is taken from his ma.n.u.script journal. Though there is no real reason for giving much credence to any single detail in either of the versions, I have in general stuck to the original draft, as likely to be somewhat closer to what Adams thought he saw at the time. A dressed-up version, prepared in connection with Adams' claim for compensation from the United States, is in Colorado River Expeditions Colorado River Expeditions of Samuel Adams, of Samuel Adams, House Miscellaneous Doc.u.ment No. 37, 42nd Cong., 1st Sess. House Miscellaneous Doc.u.ment No. 37, 42nd Cong., 1st Sess.

2 Adams, Journal, July 12, 1869. Adams, Journal, July 12, 1869.

3 There is some reason to believe that Powell's first plan was to explore the Grand rather than the Green. At least there is an item in the There is some reason to believe that Powell's first plan was to explore the Grand rather than the Green. At least there is an item in the Rocky Mountain News Rocky Mountain News for November 6, 1867, which reports Powell's departure for the east, and continues: "He will return to the territory next spring to prosecute his scientific labors, and will go down the Grand to its junction with the Colorado River." for November 6, 1867, which reports Powell's departure for the east, and continues: "He will return to the territory next spring to prosecute his scientific labors, and will go down the Grand to its junction with the Colorado River."

4 Adams, Journal, August 1, 1869. Adams, Journal, August 1, 1869.

5 Fragmentary second version of Adams' journal bound in with the first; single page numbered 17. Fragmentary second version of Adams' journal bound in with the first; single page numbered 17.

11.

1 The writing of this report and the vexed question of its reliability is discussed in Part II, Chapter 5. The writing of this report and the vexed question of its reliability is discussed in Part II, Chapter 5.

2 Powell, Powell, Exploration, Exploration, pp. 7-9. pp. 7-9.

3 Bradley, Journal, July 23, 1869. Bradley, Journal, July 23, 1869.

4 See Ba.s.s, See Ba.s.s, Adventures in the Canyon of the Colorado. Adventures in the Canyon of the Colorado.

5 Bradley, Journal, July 29, 1869. Bradley, Journal, July 29, 1869.

6 Ibid., Ibid., July 30, 1869. July 30, 1869.

7 Ibid., Ibid., July 31, 1869. July 31, 1869.

8 See Powell, Journal, August 4, 1869, where he calls the Paria "Ute Creek." Sumner's journal reads, for August 4, "Pulled out early and made a run of 38 miles, that brought us to the old Spanish Crossing between Salt Lake and New Mexico, called the Escalanta 'El vade de los Padres.'" See Powell, Journal, August 4, 1869, where he calls the Paria "Ute Creek." Sumner's journal reads, for August 4, "Pulled out early and made a run of 38 miles, that brought us to the old Spanish Crossing between Salt Lake and New Mexico, called the Escalanta 'El vade de los Padres.'"

9 The modem highway or rail crossings of the Green-Colorado canyons are precisely where the crossings were in Powell's time - at Green River, Wyoming; at Jensen, in the Uinta Valley; at Greenriver, Utah, the old Spanish or Gunnison's Crossing; and at the mouth of the Paria where the ferry has been superseded by the Navajo Bridge. There have been none added except the ferry at Hite, the old Dandy Crossing, at the upper end of Glen Canyon, which permits an undependable connection between Hanksville and Blanding, Utah. A bridge was scheduled to be built at Hite in the summer of 1953. The modem highway or rail crossings of the Green-Colorado canyons are precisely where the crossings were in Powell's time - at Green River, Wyoming; at Jensen, in the Uinta Valley; at Greenriver, Utah, the old Spanish or Gunnison's Crossing; and at the mouth of the Paria where the ferry has been superseded by the Navajo Bridge. There have been none added except the ferry at Hite, the old Dandy Crossing, at the upper end of Glen Canyon, which permits an undependable connection between Hanksville and Blanding, Utah. A bridge was scheduled to be built at Hite in the summer of 1953.

10 Bradley, Journal, August 4, 1869. Bradley, Journal, August 4, 1869.

11 For the story of the Brown-Stanton Expedition, see Robert Brewster Stanton, "Through the Grand Canyon of the Colorado," For the story of the Brown-Stanton Expedition, see Robert Brewster Stanton, "Through the Grand Canyon of the Colorado," Scribner's, Scribner's, VIII (November, 1900), 591-613; and F. A. Nims, "Through Mysterious Canons of the Colorado," VIII (November, 1900), 591-613; and F. A. Nims, "Through Mysterious Canons of the Colorado," Overland Monthly Overland Monthly (March, 1892), pp. 253-70. There are secondary accounts in Dellenbaugh's (March, 1892), pp. 253-70. There are secondary accounts in Dellenbaugh's Romance of the Colorado River Romance of the Colorado River and in Lewis R. Freeman, and in Lewis R. Freeman, The Colorado River, Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow The Colorado River, Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow (New York, 1923). The Stanton papers, including Stanton's diaries and notebooks, are in the New York Public Library. (New York, 1923). The Stanton papers, including Stanton's diaries and notebooks, are in the New York Public Library.

12 Lieutenant Ives, after fighting his way upriver as far as the mouth of Diamond Creek, led a party overland across the Colorado Plateau to the Hopi towns and across the Navajo country to Fort Defiance. It was a side excursion from this land party that tried unsuccessfully to reach the mouth of the Little Colorado. Lieutenant Ives, after fighting his way upriver as far as the mouth of Diamond Creek, led a party overland across the Colorado Plateau to the Hopi towns and across the Navajo country to Fort Defiance. It was a side excursion from this land party that tried unsuccessfully to reach the mouth of the Little Colorado.

13 Bradley, Journal, August 10, 1869. Bradley, Journal, August 10, 1869.

14 Ibid. Ibid.

15 Sumner, Journal, August 10, 1869. Sumner, Journal, August 10, 1869.

16 Bradley, Journal, August 11, 1869. Bradley, Journal, August 11, 1869.

17 Though the name "Grand Canyon" was in use before his expedition, Ives used the name "Big Canyon" in his report and map. Powell chose to return to "Grand Canyon," and his choice has stuck. Though the name "Grand Canyon" was in use before his expedition, Ives used the name "Big Canyon" in his report and map. Powell chose to return to "Grand Canyon," and his choice has stuck.

18 Powell, Powell, Exploration, Exploration, p. 80. p. 80.

19 Jacob Hamblin, Henry Miller, and Jesse Crosby, three Mormons, took a sixteen-foot skiff from the foot of Grand Wash Cliffs to Call's Landing, later Callville, in 1867. In his Jacob Hamblin, Henry Miller, and Jesse Crosby, three Mormons, took a sixteen-foot skiff from the foot of Grand Wash Cliffs to Call's Landing, later Callville, in 1867. In his Exploration, Exploration, Powell says ( p. 102) that he had the ma.n.u.script journal of that two-day trip with him on his own, so that he had fairly accurate information about the river below the Grand Wash. No copy of the Hamblin-Miller-Crosby journal is now known to exist. All of this stretch of river, which before Powell had been traversed by Ives, Hamblin, and probably James White, is now under Lake Mead. See Powell says ( p. 102) that he had the ma.n.u.script journal of that two-day trip with him on his own, so that he had fairly accurate information about the river below the Grand Wash. No copy of the Hamblin-Miller-Crosby journal is now known to exist. All of this stretch of river, which before Powell had been traversed by Ives, Hamblin, and probably James White, is now under Lake Mead. See Utah Historical Quarterly, Utah Historical Quarterly, XV, 71, note. XV, 71, note.

12.

1 In practice, the moving power of a stream is conditioned by numerous unpredictable factors such as the smoothness of the bed, the straightness of the course, and so on. An early and extremely lucid discussion of the corrasive and moving power of streams is in G. K. Gilbert, In practice, the moving power of a stream is conditioned by numerous unpredictable factors such as the smoothness of the bed, the straightness of the course, and so on. An early and extremely lucid discussion of the corrasive and moving power of streams is in G. K. Gilbert, Report on the Geology of the Henry Mountains, Report on the Geology of the Henry Mountains, in which Gilbert develops many observations first made by Powell himself. in which Gilbert develops many observations first made by Powell himself.

2 Evidence of the morbid effect of being confined in the dark and narrow inner canyon is contained in most of the river journals. The Evidence of the morbid effect of being confined in the dark and narrow inner canyon is contained in most of the river journals. The imaginary imaginary effects upon people who have not been there or who let their imaginations run free are much more extreme, as in many of the early canyon ill.u.s.trations, where towering height, acute narrowness, and cavernous darkness are wildly exaggerated. In this key, simply as random examples, see the picture of James White losing his companion, George Strole, in Bell, effects upon people who have not been there or who let their imaginations run free are much more extreme, as in many of the early canyon ill.u.s.trations, where towering height, acute narrowness, and cavernous darkness are wildly exaggerated. In this key, simply as random examples, see the picture of James White losing his companion, George Strole, in Bell, New Tracks in North America; New Tracks in North America; or the ill.u.s.trations made by F. W. von Egloffstein for the Ives report - the first pictures made of the Grand Canyon - which are reproduced elsewhere in this book; or Frederick Dellenbaugh's painting, "Running the Sockdologer," reproduced in his or the ill.u.s.trations made by F. W. von Egloffstein for the Ives report - the first pictures made of the Grand Canyon - which are reproduced elsewhere in this book; or Frederick Dellenbaugh's painting, "Running the Sockdologer," reproduced in his Romance of the Colorado River, Romance of the Colorado River, p. 329; or many of the Thomas Moran woodcuts ill.u.s.trating Powell's p. 329; or many of the Thomas Moran woodcuts ill.u.s.trating Powell's Exploration of the Colorado River of the West. Exploration of the Colorado River of the West.

3 Bradley, Journal, August 22, 1869. Bradley several times remarks how much farther it is from the Little Colorado to Grand Wash than they expected it to be from Mormon estimates. The reason is simply that through the plateaus into which it has cut the Grand Canyon the Colorado runs a very tortuous course. At its junction with the Little Colorado it is flowing almost due south; it shortly swings west, then northwest, then almost south again, then north, then again west, then southwest, then south, and then, with many minor twists, northwest to its break out of the Grand Wash Cliffs. Bradley, Journal, August 22, 1869. Bradley several times remarks how much farther it is from the Little Colorado to Grand Wash than they expected it to be from Mormon estimates. The reason is simply that through the plateaus into which it has cut the Grand Canyon the Colorado runs a very tortuous course. At its junction with the Little Colorado it is flowing almost due south; it shortly swings west, then northwest, then almost south again, then north, then again west, then southwest, then south, and then, with many minor twists, northwest to its break out of the Grand Wash Cliffs.

4 They seem to have had no special trouble with Dubendorff Rapid, a mile below the end of the Middle Granite Gorge, though it is held by modem boatmen to be one of the twenty stiffest on the river. They seem to have had no special trouble with Dubendorff Rapid, a mile below the end of the Middle Granite Gorge, though it is held by modem boatmen to be one of the twenty stiffest on the river.

5 Stanton thought this rapid the worst on the entire Colorado, but Julius Stone, on his excursion in 1909 (Julius F. Stone, Stanton thought this rapid the worst on the entire Colorado, but Julius Stone, on his excursion in 1909 (Julius F. Stone, Canyon Country Canyon Country [New York, 1932]), found it neither so rough as Powell's report had led him to expect, nor obscured by any turns. Except for a brief time when a flood scoured it out in 1952, the rapid has long been buried under Lake Mead silt, but photographs taken before the lake filled in show it as a straight reach with a creek coming in on each side to form an almost perfect cross. It was up the northern cross canyon that the Howlands and Dunn made their way out onto the s.h.i.+vwits Plateau. Powell's statement that after running the rapid they were out of sight of the three men is certainly an error - an error which is perhaps less d.a.m.ning if we remember that Powell's notes by this time were almost in code, and that he never saw this rapid again, since the second Powell expedition left the river at Kanab Wash. Stone, a contentious and literal-minded man, was undoubtedly right in rejecting some of Powell's detailed statements of fact; he was undoubtedly wrong in others, for he was himself deceived by the profound changes that a difference in water level can make in the canyons. Otis Marston's investigations of river history have indicated that Separation, while it existed, capsized more boats than any other on the river. (Letter of February 6, 1953.) [New York, 1932]), found it neither so rough as Powell's report had led him to expect, nor obscured by any turns. Except for a brief time when a flood scoured it out in 1952, the rapid has long been buried under Lake Mead silt, but photographs taken before the lake filled in show it as a straight reach with a creek coming in on each side to form an almost perfect cross. It was up the northern cross canyon that the Howlands and Dunn made their way out onto the s.h.i.+vwits Plateau. Powell's statement that after running the rapid they were out of sight of the three men is certainly an error - an error which is perhaps less d.a.m.ning if we remember that Powell's notes by this time were almost in code, and that he never saw this rapid again, since the second Powell expedition left the river at Kanab Wash. Stone, a contentious and literal-minded man, was undoubtedly right in rejecting some of Powell's detailed statements of fact; he was undoubtedly wrong in others, for he was himself deceived by the profound changes that a difference in water level can make in the canyons. Otis Marston's investigations of river history have indicated that Separation, while it existed, capsized more boats than any other on the river. (Letter of February 6, 1953.) 6 Bradley, Journal, August 27, 1869. Bradley, Journal, August 27, 1869.

7 The only corroboration for this dramatic story of Powell's is in Hawkins' reminiscences, notoriously unreliable and written down years later, after he could have read the Powell report and could easily have confused details in it with things actually remembered. Nevertheless, Hawkins does report that Powell got stuck on a cliff and had to be rescued by oars pressed into crevices so as to afford him a foothold. The difficulty is that Hawkins places the incident far back in the Canyon of Lodore, on the day when Powell was on the cliff and the camp was swept by a flash fire, the day when Hawkins lost most of the messkit in the Green. It is conceivable that Hawkins was right, and that Powell deliberately moved the story for dramatic effect to a more climactic place in his narrative. But Hawkins within two lines of telling this story has jumped from Lodore to the junction of Grand and Green, and is so obviously scrambling his memories that his account is worth very little. The only corroboration for this dramatic story of Powell's is in Hawkins' reminiscences, notoriously unreliable and written down years later, after he could have read the Powell report and could easily have confused details in it with things actually remembered. Nevertheless, Hawkins does report that Powell got stuck on a cliff and had to be rescued by oars pressed into crevices so as to afford him a foothold. The difficulty is that Hawkins places the incident far back in the Canyon of Lodore, on the day when Powell was on the cliff and the camp was swept by a flash fire, the day when Hawkins lost most of the messkit in the Green. It is conceivable that Hawkins was right, and that Powell deliberately moved the story for dramatic effect to a more climactic place in his narrative. But Hawkins within two lines of telling this story has jumped from Lodore to the junction of Grand and Green, and is so obviously scrambling his memories that his account is worth very little.

8 Bradley, Journal, August 27, 1869. Bradley, Journal, August 27, 1869.

9 Ibid. Ibid.

10 Powell, Powell, Exploration, Exploration, pp. 98-9. pp. 98-9.

11 Bradley, Journal, August 28, 1869. Bradley, Journal, August 28, 1869.

12 There is little point in dragging a reader through the dreary controversy over the precise status in history of the three who left the party. Powell himself never called them deserters, and in his report spoke of them as "faithful men." Much of the debate was stirred up by the omission of the names of the three from the Powell monument on the south rim of the Grand Canyon - an omission which, however unfortunate, can hardly be blamed upon Powell, since he had been a dozen years dead when the monument was unveiled. There is little point in dragging a reader through the dreary controversy over the precise status in history of the three who left the party. Powell himself never called them deserters, and in his report spoke of them as "faithful men." Much of the debate was stirred up by the omission of the names of the three from the Powell monument on the south rim of the Grand Canyon - an omission which, however unfortunate, can hardly be blamed upon Powell, since he had been a dozen years dead when the monument was unveiled.

13 Powell's detractors, concentrating on the details, in which he was sometimes unmistakably inaccurate, have questioned his statement that the party waited and shot off guns to see if the three would not rejoin them. Both Powell's account in Bell's Powell's detractors, concentrating on the details, in which he was sometimes unmistakably inaccurate, have questioned his statement that the party waited and shot off guns to see if the three would not rejoin them. Both Powell's account in Bell's New Tracks in North America New Tracks in North America and his and his Exploration Exploration say that they waited two hours. Sumner's journal mentions no wait. Bradley's, probably the most reliable, says, "The three boys stood on the cliff looking at us [while the party was bailing out after running Separation Rapid] and having waved them adieu we dashed through the next rapid and then into an eddy where we stopped to catch our breath and bail out the water from our now nearly sunken boats." It was perhaps to this second wait, still within range of the three if they wanted to rejoin the boat party, that Powell referred, though from Bradley's record it would not seem to have lasted anything like two hours. say that they waited two hours. Sumner's journal mentions no wait. Bradley's, probably the most reliable, says, "The three boys stood on the cliff looking at us [while the party was bailing out after running Separation Rapid] and having waved them adieu we dashed through the next rapid and then into an eddy where we stopped to catch our breath and bail out the water from our now nearly sunken boats." It was perhaps to this second wait, still within range of the three if they wanted to rejoin the boat party, that Powell referred, though from Bradley's record it would not seem to have lasted anything like two hours.

14 Powell, Journal, August 28, 1869. Powell, Journal, August 28, 1869.

15 This was Lava Cliff, which according to Otis Marston was briefly uncovered in 1952 by the same flood that scoured out Separation Rapid. It seems to have been more scary than dangerous. (Letter of February 6, 1953.) This was Lava Cliff, which according to Otis Marston was briefly uncovered in 1952 by the same flood that scoured out Separation Rapid. It seems to have been more scary than dangerous. (Letter of February 6, 1953.) 16 Omaha Omaha Republican, Republican, September 16, 1869. September 16, 1869.

II. THE PLATEAU PROVINCE.

I.

1 In attempting to appraise the relations.h.i.+p of Was.h.i.+ngton as scientific center with the West as scientific frontier I have naturally relied heavily upon the many series of government scientific publications of the eighteen-seventies and eighteen-eighties. These include the reports, monographs, and bulletins of the King, Hayden, Powell, and Wheeler Surveys (see L. F. Schmeckebier, In attempting to appraise the relations.h.i.+p of Was.h.i.+ngton as scientific center with the West as scientific frontier I have naturally relied heavily upon the many series of government scientific publications of the eighteen-seventies and eighteen-eighties. These include the reports, monographs, and bulletins of the King, Hayden, Powell, and Wheeler Surveys (see L. F. Schmeckebier, Catalogue and Index of the Publications of the Hayden, King, Powell, and Wheeler Surveys, Catalogue and Index of the Publications of the Hayden, King, Powell, and Wheeler Surveys, United States Geological Survey Bulletin 222 [Was.h.i.+ngton, 1904]); the Annual Reports, beginning in 1879 in each case, of the United States Geological Survey and the Bureau of Ethnology; the United States Geological Survey Bulletin 222 [Was.h.i.+ngton, 1904]); the Annual Reports, beginning in 1879 in each case, of the United States Geological Survey and the Bureau of Ethnology; the Contributions to North American Ethnology Contributions to North American Ethnology begun under the Powell Survey and completed under the Bureau of Ethnology; the monographs of the Bureau of Ethnology and the United States Geological Survey; the Annual Reports of the General Land Office; and certain reports of the Office of Indian Affairs, especially J. W. Powell and G. W. Ingalls, begun under the Powell Survey and completed under the Bureau of Ethnology; the monographs of the Bureau of Ethnology and the United States Geological Survey; the Annual Reports of the General Land Office; and certain reports of the Office of Indian Affairs, especially J. W. Powell and G. W. Ingalls, Report of Special Commissioners on the Condition of the Ute Indians of Utah; the Paiutes of Utah, northern Arizona, southern Nevada, and southeastern California; the Go-si-utes of Utah and Nevada; the northwestern Shoshones of Idaho and Utah; and the westem Shoshones of Nevada, and report concerning claims of settlers in the Mo-a-pa Valley, southeastern Nevada. Report of Special Commissioners on the Condition of the Ute Indians of Utah; the Paiutes of Utah, northern Arizona, southern Nevada, and southeastern California; the Go-si-utes of Utah and Nevada; the northwestern Shoshones of Idaho and Utah; and the westem Shoshones of Nevada, and report concerning claims of settlers in the Mo-a-pa Valley, southeastern Nevada. Was.h.i.+ngton, 1874. The same Was.h.i.+ngton in which these reports and monographs and bulletins were prepared and pub lished is reflected in Henry Adams' Was.h.i.+ngton, 1874. The same Was.h.i.+ngton in which these reports and monographs and bulletins were prepared and pub lished is reflected in Henry Adams' Education Education and in his letters of the period (see Worthington Chauncey Ford, ed., and in his letters of the period (see Worthington Chauncey Ford, ed., Letters of Henry Adams, 1858-1891 Letters of Henry Adams, 1858-1891 [Boston, 1930], and Harold Dean Cater, [Boston, 1930], and Harold Dean Cater, Henry Henry Adams Adams and His Friends and His Friends [Boston, 1947]), as well as in his novel [Boston, 1947]), as well as in his novel Democracy Democracy (New York, 1908) and in the letters of his wife (Ward Thoron, (New York, 1908) and in the letters of his wife (Ward Thoron, Letters of Mrs. Henry Adams, Letters of Mrs. Henry Adams, 1865-1883 [Boston, 1936]). I have found extremely useful Allan Nevins' 1865-1883 [Boston, 1936]). I have found extremely useful Allan Nevins' Hamilton Fish, the Inner History of the Grant Administration Hamilton Fish, the Inner History of the Grant Administration (New York, 1936), and a number of other biographies and autobiographies, especially: Scbucbeit and LeVene, (New York, 1936), and a number of other biographies and autobiographies, especially: Scbucbeit and LeVene, O. C O. C. Marsh, Pioneerin Paleontology; Marsh, Pioneerin Paleontology; Allan Nevins, Allan Nevins, Abram S. Hewitt: with Some Account of Peter Cooper Abram S. Hewitt: with Some Account of Peter Cooper (New York, 1935); The Century a.s.sociation, (New York, 1935); The Century a.s.sociation, Clarence King Memoirs,: Clarence King Memoirs,: G. R. Aga.s.siz; ed., G. R. Aga.s.siz; ed., Letters and Recollections of Alexander Aga.s.siz, with a Sketch of His Life and Work Letters and Recollections of Alexander Aga.s.siz, with a Sketch of His Life and Work (Boston, 1913); Simon Newcomb, (Boston, 1913); Simon Newcomb, Reminiscences of an Astronomer Reminiscences of an Astronomer (Boston, 1903); N. S. Shaler, (Boston, 1903); N. S. Shaler, Autobiography Autobiography (Boston, 1909); G. R. Brown, ed., (Boston, 1909); G. R. Brown, ed., Reminiscences of William S. Stewart of Nevada Reminiscences of William S. Stewart of Nevada (New York, 1908); Carl Schurz, Reminiscences of (New York, 1908); Carl Schurz, Reminiscences of Carl Schurz, Carl Schurz, 3 vols. (New York, 1908); Joseph Schafer, 3 vols. (New York, 1908); Joseph Schafer, Carl Carl Schurz, Schurz, Militant Militant Liberal (Evansville, Wis., 1930); U. S. Grant, Liberal (Evansville, Wis., 1930); U. S. Grant, Personal Memoirs Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant (New York, 1885-86); T. C. Smith, of U. S. Grant (New York, 1885-86); T. C. Smith, The Life and Letters of James Abram Garfield, The Life and Letters of James Abram Garfield, 2 vols. (New Haven, 1925). The general history of the period is best summarized in Allan Nevins, 2 vols. (New Haven, 1925). The general history of the period is best summarized in Allan Nevins, The Emergence of Modern America, The Emergence of Modern America, in in A History of American Life, Vol. VIII A History of American Life, Vol. VIII (New York, 1927); and E. P. Oberholtzer, (New York, 1927); and E. P. Oberholtzer, The History of the United States since the Civil War The History of the United States since the Civil War (Toronto, 1917-37). There is a very useful brief article, "Science in Was.h.i.+ngton: A Historical Survey," by Paul H. Oehser of the Smithsonian, in the American a.s.sociation for the Advancement of Science Centennial Program (Was.h.i.+ngton, August 26, 1948). And perhaps most revealing of all sources, though they are cited here only piecemeal as they happen to be used, are the extensive letter files of the various western surveys, the United States Geological Survey, and the Bureau of Ethnology, all in the National Archives, and other ma.n.u.script and letter material preserved in the libraries of the United States Geological Survey and the Bureau of Ethnology. Across a period of two or three decades, these letters give a peculiarly intimate cross-section of the ideas and personalities of American science. (Toronto, 1917-37). There is a very useful brief article, "Science in Was.h.i.+ngton: A Historical Survey," by Paul H. Oehser of the Smithsonian, in the American a.s.sociation for the Advancement of Science Centennial Program (Was.h.i.+ngton, August 26, 1948). And perhaps most revealing of all sources, though they are cited here only piecemeal as they happen to be used, are the extensive letter files of the various western surveys, the United States Geological Survey, and the Bureau of Ethnology, all in the National Archives, and other ma.n.u.script and letter material preserved in the libraries of the United States Geological Survey and the Bureau of Ethnology. Across a period of two or three decades, these letters give a peculiarly intimate cross-section of the ideas and personalities of American science.

2 Mark Twain, Letter to an unidentified person, 1890. In Bernard DeVoto, ed., Mark Twain, Letter to an unidentified person, 1890. In Bernard DeVoto, ed., The Portable Mark Twain The Portable Mark Twain (New York, 1946), p. 775. (New York, 1946), p. 775.

3 Henry Adams, Henry Adams, Democracy, an American Novel, Democracy, an American Novel, p. 10. p. 10.

2.

1 John Wesley Powell, John Wesley Powell, Report on the Geology of the Uinta Mountains, Report on the Geology of the Uinta Mountains, Chapter I. Chapter I.

2 The Plateau Province which Powell delimited was more precisely defined by Captain Clarence Edward Dutton in the course of his geological studies under Powell's direction. See especially Dutton, The Plateau Province which Powell delimited was more precisely defined by Captain Clarence Edward Dutton in the course of his geological studies under Powell's direction. See especially Dutton, Report of the Geology of the High Plateaus of Utah, Report of the Geology of the High Plateaus of Utah, Chapter I. Chapter I.

3 The history of the Spanish Southwest is a separate and extensive field of learning The history of the Spanish Southwest is a separate and extensive field of learning - - almost a separate religion almost a separate religion - - whose bibliography is far too large even to sample here. For Father Escalante's diary, the doc.u.ment which most centrally touches the region of Powell's interest, see Herbert E. Bolton, whose bibliography is far too large even to sample here. For Father Escalante's diary, the doc.u.ment which most centrally touches the region of Powell's interest, see Herbert E. Bolton, Pageant in the Wilderness Pageant in the Wilderness (Salt Lake City, 1950). (Salt Lake City, 1950).

4 Harrison Clifford Dale, Harrison Clifford Dale, The Ashley Smith Explorations. The Ashley Smith Explorations. One of the most vivid accounts of the mountain-man breed, though the book does not touch more than the fringes of the Plateau Province, is Bernard DeVoto's One of the most vivid accounts of the mountain-man breed, though the book does not touch more than the fringes of the Plateau Province, is Bernard DeVoto's Across the Wide Missouri. Across the Wide Missouri.

5 In Vol. XI of the In Vol. XI of the Pacific Railroad Reports, Pacific Railroad Reports, published in 1861. published in 1861.

6 It might be said to have begun with Columbus or even with Columbus' predecessors, for as Bernard DeVoto brilliantly demonstrates in It might be said to have begun with Columbus or even with Columbus' predecessors, for as Bernard DeVoto brilliantly demonstrates in The Course of Empire The Course of Empire (Boston, 1952), it is possible to look upon the opening of America as an episode in the search for the Great South Sea or the Northwest Pa.s.sage, and the events of America's westering as milestones on the road to Asia. He thus takes the Lewis and Clark expedition not so much as the beginning of something as the final act of a long historical drama. (Boston, 1952), it is possible to look upon the opening of America as an episode in the search for the Great South Sea or the Northwest Pa.s.sage, and the events of America's westering as milestones on the road to Asia. He thus takes the Lewis and Clark expedition not so much as the beginning of something as the final act of a long historical drama.

3.

1 Testifying before a House investigating committee in May, 1874, when the question of the consolidation of the surveys was up for consideration, Powell said that a member of the Appropriations Committee which had given him his first appropriation had been the cause of this error. "A member of that committee asked me what was done with the collections. I told him that they went to the Smithsonian Inst.i.tution, and I said that if there was any question about it, it might be inserted in the law. He said that he would have that attended to and he made a memorandum of it. It seems that afterwards, seeing this memorandum, that the collections were to go to the Smithsonian Inst.i.tution, he accidentally sent my whole work there." (House Report No. 612, 43rd Cong., 1st Sess., testimony on May 20, 1874). There is no reason to believe that Powell ever tried to correct the error, but one result of the 1874 investigation of the Western surveys was to send his outfit back to the Department of the Interior and make it a second but autonomous division of Hayden's Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories. It remained under Interior until 1879, when the surveys were finally consolidated in the United States Geological Survey. Testifying before a House investigating committee in May, 1874, when the question of the consolidation of the surveys was up for consideration, Powell said that a member of the Appropriations Committee which had given him his first appropriation had been the cause of this error. "A member of that committee asked me what was done with the collections. I told him that they went to the Smithsonian Inst.i.tution, and I said that if there was any question about it, it might be inserted in the law. He said that he would have that attended to and he made a memorandum of it. It seems that afterwards, seeing this memorandum, that the collections were to go to the Smithsonian Inst.i.tution, he accidentally sent my whole work there." (House Report No. 612, 43rd Cong., 1st Sess., testimony on May 20, 1874). There is no reason to believe that Powell ever tried to correct the error, but one result of the 1874 investigation of the Western surveys was to send his outfit back to the Department of the Interior and make it a second but autonomous division of Hayden's Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories. It remained under Interior until 1879, when the surveys were finally consolidated in the United States Geological Survey.

2 Bell, Bell, New Tracks in North America. New Tracks in North America.

3 J. W. Powell, "The Personal Characteristics of Professor Baird," J. W. Powell, "The Personal Characteristics of Professor Baird," Annual Report Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Inst.i.tution, 1888 (Was.h.i.+ngton, 1890), pp. 739-44. of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Inst.i.tution, 1888 (Was.h.i.+ngton, 1890), pp. 739-44.

4 There are brief biographical sketches of all these early members of the Powell Survey in the There are brief biographical sketches of all these early members of the Powell Survey in the Utah Historical Quarterly, Utah Historical Quarterly, XV, XVI, and XVII-the volumes in which many of the known journals of both river expeditions are reproduced. See also Frederick S. Dellenbaugh, XV, XVI, and XVII-the volumes in which many of the known journals of both river expeditions are reproduced. See also Frederick S. Dellenbaugh, A Canyon Voyage A Canyon Voyage (New York, 1908), a detailed account of the second trip. This was for many years the only published account of that trip except for Beaman's series of articles ent.i.tled "The Canon of the Colorado and the Moqui Pueblos," (New York, 1908), a detailed account of the second trip. This was for many years the only published account of that trip except for Beaman's series of articles ent.i.tled "The Canon of the Colorado and the Moqui Pueblos," Appleton's ]ournal, Appleton's ]ournal, XI (April-May, 1874). XI (April-May, 1874).

5 For a summary of the history and work of all these early surveys, see G. P. Merrill, For a summary of the history and work of all these early surveys, see G. P. Merrill, The First One Hundred Years of American Geology The First One Hundred Years of American Geology (New Haven, 1924), and C. L. and M. A. Fenton, (New Haven, 1924), and C. L. and M. A. Fenton, The Story of the Great Geologists The Story of the Great Geologists (New York, 1945). There is also much information as well as a judicious evaluation of the work of many western geologists in Herman LeRoy Fairchild, (New York, 1945). There is also much information as well as a judicious evaluation of the work of many western geologists in Herman LeRoy Fairchild, The Geological Society of America, 1888-1930 The Geological Society of America, 1888-1930 (New York, 1932). Fairchild concludes (p. 47), "The explorations of the western part of America during the years 1867-1890, with the wonderful discoveries in structure, dynamics, and in the evolution of the vertebrates, probably make the most brilliant chapter in the entire history of geology." Actually it was Powell, with his co-workers Gilbert and Dutton, who did the most enduring work in pure science, especially in physiography and geophysics. The geological work of both King and Hayden has suffered much more than theirs with time. (New York, 1932). Fairchild concludes (p. 47), "The explorations of the western part of America during the years 1867-1890, with the wonderful discoveries in structure, dynamics, and in the evolution of the vertebrates, probably make the most brilliant chapter in the entire history of geology." Actually it was Powell, with his co-workers Gilbert and Dutton, who did the most enduring work in pure science, especially in physiography and geophysics. The geological work of both King and Hayden has suffered much more than theirs with time.