From Cover To Cover Part 2

MYTHOLOGY.

These stories explain the existence and nature of the world, and generally feature G.o.ds and G.o.ddesses as their primary characters, although mortals occasionally put in an appearance. Myths are often considered to be sacred stories in their culture of origin.

EPICS.

Long, episodic stories of adventure, grounded in mythology but featuring a mortal hero. The best-known epics in the Western tradition are The Iliad The Iliad and and The Odyssey The Odyssey.

LEGENDS.

Stories based on supposedly real people and their heroic deeds and adventures. Part of the intrigue of legends is that their characters, such as King Arthur and Johnny Appleseed, are said to have a historical basis, yet their stories are a mix of fantasy and reality.

TALL TALES.

A type of legend in which the hero's exploits are highly exaggerated and retold in a hyperbolic style, generally to the point of being hilariously funny.

URBAN LEGENDS.

A recently identified type of contemporary oral tale that recounts bizarre or supernatural occurrences, sworn to be true as the teller generally claims the event happened to a friend of a friend. In spite of their name, they can be set in any real place, urban or rural. These tales are popular with older children, as well as teenagers and adults, and are beginning to make their way into published literature for children.

FABLES.

A very short story which teaches a moral or a lesson about conduct. Fables rarely feature more than two characters, and the characters are often animals.

FOLKTALES.

Fanciful short stories with either human or animal characters. Most folktales have fast-moving plots in which good is eventually rewarded and evil is punished. Folktales themselves have been divided into several categories.

c.u.mulative: stories such as "The House That Jack Built" that are structured with the repet.i.tion of an ever-increasing acc.u.mulation of details.

Pourquoi: stories that explain the origins of natural traits, such as "Why Mosquitoes Buzz in People's Ears."

Beast tales: stories in which animals talk and behave as people.

Fairy tales: Also called "magic tales" or "wonder tales," stories with elements of magic and enchantment. They may include supernatural characters such as witches, wizards, elves, dragons, and even occasionally fairies.

Realistic: The rarest type of folktale, these are stories with human characters and no magic elements.

As you evaluate any book based on traditional literature, one of the first things you should do is to determine the tale type tale type. Is the story a retelling of a myth? Is it a legend? Or pourquoi pourquoi tale? Sometimes this information will be given to you in the book's subt.i.tle or in an author's note, but most often you will have to make this judgment yourself by applying what you know about the categories of traditional literature. Among children's literature professionals, the above-named categories are widely known and understood, so your use of these descriptive terms in published reviews will be especially helpful. tale? Sometimes this information will be given to you in the book's subt.i.tle or in an author's note, but most often you will have to make this judgment yourself by applying what you know about the categories of traditional literature. Among children's literature professionals, the above-named categories are widely known and understood, so your use of these descriptive terms in published reviews will be especially helpful.

Traditional stories from all these categories are published in the United States for children each year, although the majority of these are folktales. Many are published individually, a single story presented in a thirty-two-page picture book; others are published as collections of tales in one volume. Whatever the mode of presentation, there are critical standards that can be applied to all traditional literature when it is being retold for a child audience. These standards relate to the context in which the literature is created: first, as an oral literature that undoubtedly changed as it was pa.s.sed from storyteller to storyteller; next, as it was consciously collected and recorded for posterity; and finally, as it was taken from one written source, reshaped, retold, and re-created into another as a book for children.

ORIGINAL SOURCES.

The evaluation of traditional literature begins with a healthy dose of curiosity about the original source of the material. Ask yourself: Where did this story originate? Because very few writers of children's books have primary contact with the actual source of an oral story, they must generally rely on a printed version that was collected for another purpose by another person.

In recent years there has been a growing demand that authors who retell traditional literature for children cite the printed sources from which they derived the story. In her excellent article "Cite the Source: Reducing Cultural Chaos in Picture Books," the critic and folklore scholar Betsy Hearne has evaluated the methods authors currently use for citing sources in picture book folktales and has found that they fall into five different categories: 1. Model source notes cite specific source(s) and provide a description of the cultural context in which the story was told, as well as a description of any changes the author made in his or her retelling. cite specific source(s) and provide a description of the cultural context in which the story was told, as well as a description of any changes the author made in his or her retelling.

2. Well-made source notes cite the specific source(s) in a highly visible presentation at the beginning or end of the book and may also include cultural details related to the story. cite the specific source(s) in a highly visible presentation at the beginning or end of the book and may also include cultural details related to the story.

3. Fine-print source notes cite specific source(s) in a less visible manner, generally in small print on the copyright page. cite specific source(s) in a less visible manner, generally in small print on the copyright page.

4. Background-as-source notes give general information about the culture from which the tale comes and sometimes information about the story itself, without citing a specific printed source. give general information about the culture from which the tale comes and sometimes information about the story itself, without citing a specific printed source.

5. Nonexistent source notes provide no information on sources at all beyond, perhaps, a subt.i.tle such as "An Old Tale" or "A Navajo Legend." provide no information on sources at all beyond, perhaps, a subt.i.tle such as "An Old Tale" or "A Navajo Legend."

Dr. Hearne goes on to argue convincingly that as critics we should consider types 4 and 5 completely unacceptable. She writes: "[I]t's time to declare that part of a great picture-book folktale is is the source note, that context is important to text." the source note, that context is important to text."

Occasionally, an author will collect a folktale directly from an oral rather than a printed source, and the same standards for source notes apply, perhaps even more stringently. As Dr. Hearne points out: "It is one thing to adapt a folktale from a printed source, which should, of course, be cited. It is another to collect a story from an oral source and not attribute it, which violates basic folklore and storytelling ethics."

Source notes are invaluable to the critic. Beyond a.s.sessing the level and quality of the note itself, you may choose to seek out the original printed source to compare it to the book you are evaluating. This is an especially important step to take when the tale is previously unknown to you or when it comes from an unfamiliar culture or tradition. By comparing the adaptation to the original, you can determine the quality of the author's retelling. What details have changed? Is there a logical reason for any changes, omissions, or additions? Has the author successfully re-created the original tone of the story? What elements reflect the author's own style?

Kevin Crossley-Holland's model source notes for the retellings in his book British Folk Tales: New Versions British Folk Tales: New Versions offer capsule histories of the tales themselves, so that even tales that are familiar to readers can be read with new eyes. Look, for example, at his source note on the well-loved story "Goldilocks and the Three Bears": offer capsule histories of the tales themselves, so that even tales that are familiar to readers can be read with new eyes. Look, for example, at his source note on the well-loved story "Goldilocks and the Three Bears": The Doctor by Robert Southey (1837)The earliest known version of this nursery tale was written down by Eleanor Mure in 1831, but I have chosen to follow the clean lines and formulaic repet.i.tions of Southey's version. Southey, however, described his visitor to the three bears as a "little old Woman" with an "ugly, dirty, head" I have bowed to more recent taste...in changing her into Goldilocks-a form she first took in 1904 (Old Nursery Stories and Rhymes, ill.u.s.trated by Joan Ha.s.sall) after pa.s.sing several incarnations, including Silver-Hair (1849), Silver- (Old Nursery Stories and Rhymes, ill.u.s.trated by Joan Ha.s.sall) after pa.s.sing several incarnations, including Silver-Hair (1849), Silver-Locks (1858), and Golden Hair (1868). I have also dropped most of Southey's little moral asides....

Crossley-Holland's version of "The Three Bears" includes several details not commonly found in other retellings: The bears are all male and are described as "the great, huge bear" "the middle bear" and "the little, small, wee bear" rather than the more familiar Papa Bear, Mama Bear, and Baby Bear. Goldilocks expresses her frustration with the words "Bother and bother!" and "Dash and das.h.!.+" When the bears return home, they find evidence of an intruder through clues Goldilocks has left behind: spoons left in porridge bowls, chair cus.h.i.+ons left flattened and out of place, pillows and blankets rumpled on the bears' beds. These details have generally been omitted from other retellings, in which the three bears seem to know instinctively that someone's been eating their porridge, sitting in their chairs, and sleeping in their beds. Lastly the Crossley-Holland version ends with one further formulaic repet.i.tion: As the bears examine their beds, each of their voices enters into Goldilocks's dreams. The great, huge bear's voice is like thunder rumbling; the middle bear's voice is like "...somebody speaking in a dream" and finally the shrill, high-pitched voice of the little, small, wee bear wakes her up.

A quick consultation with Southey's version, which can be found in Iona and Peter Opie's The Cla.s.sic Fairy Tales The Cla.s.sic Fairy Tales, reveals that most of these details came directly from the original source. Goldilocks's interjections were Crossley-Holland's invention, but the description of the bears, the trail of evidence, and the effect of the voices on a sleeping Goldilocks were all part of the 1837 version. By comparing his version to the original, we can see that Crossley-Holland's skill comes through in his deliberate decisions based on thorough research and in his lucid retelling that restores the story's original charm.

Other retellers have strayed a bit further from the source in their retellings of "Goldilocks and the Three Bears" but have come up with equally enchanting versions. Byron Barton's version, The Three Bears The Three Bears, takes a minimalist approach by scaling the text down to the least number of words that can be used to tell the story. His concise text is well matched with boldly colored, uncluttered ill.u.s.trations, making the edition perfect for very young children who are hearing the story for the very first time. James Marshall's text in Goldilocks and the Three Bears Goldilocks and the Three Bears adds many humorous asides; on noticing a lot of coa.r.s.e brown fur around the bears' house, for example, Goldilocks surmises, "They must have kitties." The author, too, adds occasional comments himself, in the spirit of Dr. Southey's moral asides. Marshall's tone, combined with his wry ill.u.s.trations, makes it clear that he is inviting children to laugh at Goldilocks's bad manners and errors in judgment, mistakes they themselves would adds many humorous asides; on noticing a lot of coa.r.s.e brown fur around the bears' house, for example, Goldilocks surmises, "They must have kitties." The author, too, adds occasional comments himself, in the spirit of Dr. Southey's moral asides. Marshall's tone, combined with his wry ill.u.s.trations, makes it clear that he is inviting children to laugh at Goldilocks's bad manners and errors in judgment, mistakes they themselves would never never make. His edition is ideal for children who are already familiar with the story and who are thus likely to enjoy Marshall's unique additions. Margaret Willey strays a bit further from the original by making the three bears' abode more rustic and bearlike in make. His edition is ideal for children who are already familiar with the story and who are thus likely to enjoy Marshall's unique additions. Margaret Willey strays a bit further from the original by making the three bears' abode more rustic and bearlike in The 3 Bears and Goldilocks The 3 Bears and Goldilocks. When Goldilocks comes upon the crude little cabin that has floors strewn with "...leaves and berry stems and pine cones and fish bones and thick, brown fur," she pitches in to tidy the place up, thinking that whoever lives there will appreciate her efforts. But the physical labor makes her hungry and tired, leading her to sample the bowls of porridge and the beds. In this retelling the author provides a bit of invented backstory for children who are familiar with the original story and have been left wondering about Goldilocks's motivation.

NARRATIVE STYLE.

The most successful retellings of traditional stories for children maintain something of the flavor of their oral origins. As Betsy Hearne has pointed out, these stories should come alive when they're read out loud: Repet.i.tion, rhythm, and robust sound are often important features in oral stories.

Julius Lester is especially gifted as a teller of tales from African-American traditions and is perhaps one of the best writers when it comes to capturing the sound of oral storytelling in written form for children. Lester achieves this by using short sentences, natural dialogue, humorous exaggeration, surprising metaphors, and by occasionally addressing his audience directly.

The next day John Henry went to town. He met up with the meanest man in the state, Ferret-Faced Freddy, sitting on his big white horse. You know what he was doing? He was thinking of mean things to do. Ferret-Faced Freddy was so mean, he cried if he had a nice thought.John Henry said, "Freddy, I'll make you a bet. Let's have a race. You on your horse. Me on my legs. If you and your horse win, you can work me as hard as you want for a whole year. If I win, you have to be nice for a year."Ferret-Faced Freddy laughed an evil laugh. "It's a deal, John Henry." His voice sounded like bat wings on tombstones.

Julius Lester's narrative is not only easy to read aloud but also easy for listeners to understand and follow, due to his faithfulness to oral traditions.

Margaret Read MacDonald is a professional storyteller whose oral style is reflected in her written retellings of folktales. Like Lester, she uses a lot of short and natural-sounding dialogue. She also uses recurring phrases to give the story a predictable pattern, making it easier for children to listen to and remember. In Mabela the Clever Mabela the Clever, line breaks and boldface and uppercase type are used to add emphasis for anyone reading it aloud.

Then Mabela rememberedsomething else her fatheralways said. "Mabela, whenyou are out and about, keepyour eyes open and LOOKAROUND YOU."Mabela turned her headjust a little to the left,just a little to the right.She did NOT see a LONGline of mice. She saw aSHORT line of miceand the CAT VERY CLOSE!

Many storytellers choose to take on a more formal tone in their retellings to reflect the serious nature of the tale they are telling. But even with stories of this kind, the original oral style is generally direct and to the point. Note, for example, the style of the following Lenape tale from John Bierhorst's collection The White Deer, and Other Stories Told by the Lenape The White Deer, and Other Stories Told by the Lenape, recorded directly from an oral source, Lenape elder Nora Thompson Dean: Well, this is a story about a squirrel. At one time he was a very huge creature, and he went about the lands on the prairies-and the woods.He killed everything he saw, and he would eat these different animals-the lynx, and the weasels, and wolves, everything he'd catch-he would eat these creatures.

Compare that authentic oral style with the opening sentences Abenaki writer-storyteller Joseph Bruchac uses in a tale of the neighboring Pa.s.samaquoddy, "The Girl and the Chenoo": Long ago, there was a girl whose older brothers were hunters. When they went on their hunting trips far into the forest, she would sometimes go with them. Because she was always ready to hear their stories, they called her Little Listener and were happy to have her along. As she was the youngest, Little Listener was usually the one chosen to stay behind and take care of their camp.

While we can see that Bruchac's written narrative is a bit more polished, he still maintains the qualities of an oral tale by quickly establis.h.i.+ng the time, setting, and main character of the story and then moving right into the action. Very few words are wasted on physical descriptions or on creating a context for the story. And his tone is respectful without being reverential.

Because all traditional literature has its origins in oral storytelling, it is important to look closely at the language that is used in any tale you evaluate. Does the text read well aloud? What words contribute to the quality Dr. Hearne describes as "robust sound"? Do you notice elements that give the text a flavor of oral storytelling, such as colloquial speech or occasional use of second person or questions? Do you notice a repet.i.tion of any catch phrases, such as the Three Bears' observation "Someone has been sitting in my chair"?

The oral origins of the tale will also dictate aspects of plot and character. Since these tales move along quickly, with little time to establish setting and character motivations, we expect rapid transitions and concentrated action. The text itself might seem choppy and disjointed if the author doesn't use vivid language or establish patterns through repet.i.tion. Consider, for example, how The Three Bears The Three Bears might read without its richly patterned language: might read without its richly patterned language: Three bears decided to go for a walk while their porridge was cooling. While they were gone, a little girl named Goldilocks entered their house. She tasted the porridge in the first two bowls and then ate all the porridge in the third one. She sat in the bears' chairs and broke the smallest one. She went upstairs and tried out all the bears' beds. She found the smallest one to be the most comfortable, and she fell asleep on it. She was still sleeping when the bears returned home. They noticed someone had been eating their porridge and sitting in their chairs. Then they went upstairs and noticed someone had been sleeping in their beds, too. The smallest bear cried out, "She's still here!" That woke Goldilocks up and she jumped out the window and ran away. The three bears never saw her again.

Given this basic bare-bones version, we can see how much the story depends on the use of repet.i.tion and pattern in the language that is used to retell it. In trying to determine the quality of a retelling, it can be helpful to think of the story in terms of its most basic plot outline, as I have done above with "The Three Bears." This will make the reteller's language stand out. How has the author used language to make the retelling engaging and easy to listen to? What descriptive phrases and actions are used to characterize the key players in the story? You will note, for example, that the three bears lose all their distinguis.h.i.+ng characteristics when they are no longer described in terms of size or their connections to Goldilocks's response to their individual chairs, beds, and bowls of porridge.

ILl.u.s.tRATIONS.

At the end of the twentieth century, we saw a tremendous increase in the publication of picture book versions of folktales for children, partly to meet the increasing demands for multicultural literature and partly to meet the increasing demands from artists who use picture books as a means of showcasing their art. It was not unusual, for example, to see more than one picture book version of the same story published in any given year. While there have been fewer picture book folktales published since 2000, they continue to be a mainstay of children's literature.

Because traditional literature is by its nature generally devoid of extensive description, these stories are ripe for countless ill.u.s.trative treatments by artists with distinctive and diverse styles. Four picture book versions of "Hansel and Gretel" published within a five-year period, for example, contain remarkably similar texts-all were taken from faithful English translations of the story as it appeared in the Brothers Grimm's 1812 Children's and Household Tales Children's and Household Tales. But in the hands of four different ill.u.s.trators, no two versions look alike.

Austrian artist Lisbeth Zwerger emphasizes the isolation and abandonment of Hansel and Gretel by making the two solitary children the focal point of every ill.u.s.tration. Very little attention is given to background details of any kind, and often we see only their two figures set against a backdrop of a somber earth tones that fade into nothingness. Conversely, American artist Susan Jeffers pays great attention to the children's natural surroundings, with leaves, flowers, birds, and other forest creatures in great abundance placed in the foreground of nearly every ill.u.s.tration. Her art suggests that it is human contact, not the forest, that holds danger for the pair.

Another American artist, Paul O. Zelinsky, gives the story a more literal interpretation, with his richly detailed oil paintings that suggest the works of seventeenth-century Dutch genre painters. His attention to clothing styles and household interiors puts the story into a definite historical context. So, too, do the ill.u.s.trations by British artist Anthony Browne; however, he places the story a little closer to home by setting it in the late twentieth century: Hansel and Gretel's bleak existence, as they sit around a bare kitchen table, includes a blaring television in the background; and, as they lie in bed at night, a bottle of Oil of Olay sits on their stepmother's dresser. Browne's ill.u.s.trations also add a psychological layer to the story by subtly suggesting that the stepmother and the witch are one and the same.

Personal tastes aside, none of these versions is necessarily superior to the others or a more faithful rendition of the original tale. Each one stands out as distinctive; and happily there is plenty of room for them all. By looking at multiple versions of the same tale, we can even sharpen our evaluative skills, as it leads us to think about those elements that are truly original and to consider how well they complement the story.

Complications arise when an artist attempts to ill.u.s.trate a story from outside his or her realm of cultural experience. If the artist has little or no background in a particular area and is unwilling or unable to do thorough research, he or she is in danger of misrepresenting the story through ill.u.s.trations, especially if an attempt is made to imitate "native" styles. It is very difficult for an outsider to extract details effectively without an understanding of the overall context from which they come. That is not to say it can't be done. Ed Young, for example, is known for his attention to authentic detail in the artwork he creates for traditional stories from other cultures. In Kimiko Kajikawa's Tsunami! Tsunami!, for example, Young accurately depicts the clothing, hairstyles, and architecture characteristic of mid-nineteenth-century j.a.pan.

Beyond judging the quality of the ill.u.s.trations themselves, as you would do with any picture book, think about how well they complement the story. Has the artist tried to give a sense of the place and culture from which the tale comes and, if so, has he or she succeeded? Does the style the artist used blend well with the tone of the story? What details has the artist added to expand characterization or define setting? Does the artist add a personal interpretation to the story through the use of mood or symbols?

COLLECTIONS.

In addition to picture-book editions of single tales, many traditional stories are published in collections of stories which are generally aimed at children from ages eight to twelve. While these collections may include occasional ill.u.s.trations, the emphasis here is on the stories themselves, and there is generally some unifying characteristic that binds them together. They may be stories from a particular nation or ethnic group, for example, such as Sheldon Oberman's Solomon and the Ant, and Other Jewish Folktales Solomon and the Ant, and Other Jewish Folktales, or they may be stories of a particular type, as in Jane Yolen's collection of folktales from around the world with strong female protagonists, Not One Damsel in Distress Not One Damsel in Distress.

DOc.u.mENTATION OF SOURCES.

Even when stories come from a common cultural source, the reteller generally consults a variety of original source material to pull together a collection of stories. Because this is most often the case, we expect the author to provide doc.u.mentation and source notes for each story included in the collection.

Author Alvin Schwartz sets the standard for this sort of doc.u.mentation in his collections of folklore aimed at children. Even in his simplest books, such as the beginning reader In a Dark, Dark Room, and Other Scary Stories In a Dark, Dark Room, and Other Scary Stories, he includes source notes t.i.tled "Where the Stories Come From" that are aimed at the beginning readers themselves. His popular collections of frightening folklore for older children include extensive notes; for the twenty-nine stories included in Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark, for example, Schwartz provides what Betsy Hearne has referred to as "model source notes." To research and doc.u.ment the stories he retold, he consulted eighty-four print sources and more than a dozen informants (both children and adults who shared their scary stories with him). In his notes he acknowledges the sources he used, discusses variants, and tells how he arrived at the final version that appears in his book.

ORGANIZATION.

Schwartz also organizes the stories into sections by type: jump stories, ghost stories, scary things, urban legends, and humorous stories. Each section is introduced with a one-or two-sentence description of the story type, and at the end of the book more extensive notes give further background about each of the tale types, including such things as various techniques for telling a jump tale and the current social environment that makes urban legends appealing.

Other compilers have chosen to organize collections by places or cultures of origin, or by subject. When you evaluate a collection of traditional tales, think about how it is organized. Will the organization a.s.sist readers who may be looking for just one or two particular tales? Will it invite readers to approach the collected stories as one continuous narrative? Does the author provide a written introduction to the stories in each section that explains how the part is distinctive and how it relates to the collection as a whole? What is the range of tale types within each section, as well as the range of tales in the entire book?

LITERARY FOLKTALES.

These tales are not part of traditional literature, but I will mention them here because they are often confused with traditional tales. Rather than originating within a particular culture's oral storytelling tradition, a literary folktale is written by a known author who uses the characteristics we a.s.sociate with folktales: concentrated action, stock characters, elements of fantasy, and simple themes. Hans Christian Andersen and Oscar Wilde are perhaps the best-known authors of this type of tale; however, many contemporary authors try their hands at this as well. They are often difficult to distinguish from true folktales, so be on the lookout for descriptive phrases, such as "an original tale," in subt.i.tles or flap copy. Also, check the CIP on the copyright page. The Library of Congress a.s.signs the Dewey decimal number 398 to traditional literature, 290 to mythology, and [FIC] or [E] to literary folktales, although it is not always infallible in its cla.s.sifications.

FRACTURED FAIRY TALES.

Somewhere between true folktales and literary folktales fall fractured fairy tales fractured fairy tales, playful variants on familiar stories and characters. Many scholars cite James Thurber as the first American writer to fracture a tale, with "The Little Girl and the Wolf," a send-up of "Little Red Riding Hood" that was published in The New Yorker The New Yorker in 1939. The term "fractured fairy tale" itself comes from a regular segment that was part of the in 1939. The term "fractured fairy tale" itself comes from a regular segment that was part of the Rocky and Bullwinkle Rocky and Bullwinkle cartoon series that ran from 1959 to 1964. Julie c.u.mmins defines it as "A cla.s.sic folk or fairy tale rewritten with tongue-in-cheek humor or as a spoof using twists and spins on the story's features; text and visual references poke fun at the original, resulting in a witty, clever, and entertaining tale." cartoon series that ran from 1959 to 1964. Julie c.u.mmins defines it as "A cla.s.sic folk or fairy tale rewritten with tongue-in-cheek humor or as a spoof using twists and spins on the story's features; text and visual references poke fun at the original, resulting in a witty, clever, and entertaining tale."

In children's literature, Jon Scieszka and Lane Smith have set the standard for fractured fairy tales, beginning with their popular recasting of "The Three Little Pigs," The True Story of the 3 Little Pigs The True Story of the 3 Little Pigs by A. Wolf. They turn the original on its head by telling the story from the wolf's point of view. He was merely trying to borrow a cup of sugar from his porcine neighbors so he could bake a cake for his grandmother. Was it his fault that their houses were so poorly constructed that they fell down when he sneezed? Smith's ill.u.s.trations add to the humor by consistently contradicting the wolf's claims of his innocence. David Wiesner uses ill.u.s.tration to twist the same story in a completely different direction in by A. Wolf. They turn the original on its head by telling the story from the wolf's point of view. He was merely trying to borrow a cup of sugar from his porcine neighbors so he could bake a cake for his grandmother. Was it his fault that their houses were so poorly constructed that they fell down when he sneezed? Smith's ill.u.s.trations add to the humor by consistently contradicting the wolf's claims of his innocence. David Wiesner uses ill.u.s.tration to twist the same story in a completely different direction in The Three Pigs The Three Pigs by inviting us to look beyond the borders of the page itself. In his fractured tale, the wolf huffs and puffs and blows the pigs right out of the story. Outside the tale, they become realistic, three-dimensional pigs who look right at the reader before they wander through other traditional tales, taking on the characteristics of the various art styles represented in each one. by inviting us to look beyond the borders of the page itself. In his fractured tale, the wolf huffs and puffs and blows the pigs right out of the story. Outside the tale, they become realistic, three-dimensional pigs who look right at the reader before they wander through other traditional tales, taking on the characteristics of the various art styles represented in each one.

"The Three Little Pigs" seems to be a favorite target for fracturing, but any familiar tale can find new life when an author and artist play with setting, characters, point of view, or a reversal of standard elements. For fractured fairy tales to be completely successful with children, they must begin with traditional tales that children know well. Otherwise, the humor will probably fall flat. Happily, authors have a wealth of traditional tales from which to choose.

CHAPTER 4.

Poetry, Verse, Rhymes, and Songs.

Rhythm, rhyme, and the pleasurable sounds that words make can appeal to children from a very early age. It is no accident that lullabies are sung to soothe babies and nursery rhymes are recited to entertain them. Children of all ages like the sounds of poetry in language. Older children chant rhymes as they play games and jump rope. They revise the lyrics of commercial jingles to amuse their peers and twist names and words to taunt their enemies. They re-create the rhythms and rhymes of popular music to pa.s.s the time as they wait for the school bus in the morning. We find an appet.i.te for poetry everywhere we find children.

Yet many children claim to dislike poetry. In all likelihood what they dislike is the study study of poetry. Because poetry is defined in part by form and structure, over the years, children in school have been forced to think about poems in these terms. Many adults themselves have unpleasant memories of being forced to dissect a poem to a.n.a.lyze its meaning, and they have come to a.s.sociate this unpleasantness with poetry in general. But poetry need not be picked apart to be understood and appreciated. Poems speak to children through sound, images, and ideas. of poetry. Because poetry is defined in part by form and structure, over the years, children in school have been forced to think about poems in these terms. Many adults themselves have unpleasant memories of being forced to dissect a poem to a.n.a.lyze its meaning, and they have come to a.s.sociate this unpleasantness with poetry in general. But poetry need not be picked apart to be understood and appreciated. Poems speak to children through sound, images, and ideas.

THE SOUND OF POETRY.

Poetry uses words in musical, rhythmic patterns that delight small children, even before they understand the meaning of the words. As children get older, they are better able to appreciate the subtleties of poetic form and content, but young children seem to be especially attracted to the regular structured patterns, more aptly called verse verse.

Rhyme, the repet.i.tion of the same or similar sounds, is an important part of verse and, to some extent, poetry. There are many kinds of rhyme, but when most people use the word, they are generally referring to end rhyme end rhyme only. End rhyme is the regularly occurring echo that is used in a uniform pattern at the conclusion of lines, and it is the hallmark of conventional verse, particularly verse that is aimed at very young children. While it can be pleasing to the ear and may make a poem easier to listen to and remember, it can also lead to a singsong regularity that deadens the senses. In fact, many believe that end rhyme is such an artificial and unnatural way of using language, in the hands of a lesser poet, it can destroy the essence of poetry. Writers can easily become so bound to rhyme that it dictates the word choice, and the words lose their power and meaning. That is the opposite of what a poet strives for. only. End rhyme is the regularly occurring echo that is used in a uniform pattern at the conclusion of lines, and it is the hallmark of conventional verse, particularly verse that is aimed at very young children. While it can be pleasing to the ear and may make a poem easier to listen to and remember, it can also lead to a singsong regularity that deadens the senses. In fact, many believe that end rhyme is such an artificial and unnatural way of using language, in the hands of a lesser poet, it can destroy the essence of poetry. Writers can easily become so bound to rhyme that it dictates the word choice, and the words lose their power and meaning. That is the opposite of what a poet strives for.

Many other devices of sound contribute to rhyme in a pleasurable but less obvious way. These include alliteration alliteration (the repet.i.tion of initial consonant sounds), (the repet.i.tion of initial consonant sounds), a.s.sonance a.s.sonance (the repet.i.tion of vowel sounds), and (the repet.i.tion of vowel sounds), and consonance consonance (the repet.i.tion of final consonants). Karla Kuskin uses all the above sound devices in her poem "Thistles." (the repet.i.tion of final consonants). Karla Kuskin uses all the above sound devices in her poem "Thistles."

Thirty thirsty thistlesThicketed and greenGrowing in a gra.s.sy swampPurple-topped and leanp.r.i.c.kly and thistlyTopped by tufts of thornsGreen mean little leaves on themAnd tiny purple hornsBriary and bramblyA spiky, spiney bunch of them.A troop of bright-red birds came byAnd had a lovely lunch of them.

Both poetry and verse have some sort of rhythm, called meter meter. The lengths of a poem's lines and the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables const.i.tute its meter. It not only contributes to the way a poem sounds but also can reinforce the poem's meaning. Meter can be used to slow the reader down and give us a sense of quiet contemplation or dreaming, or to move us along quickly to communicate such things as playful movement. Note how the poet Eloise Greenfield uses short lines to reinforce meaning in this stanza from her poem about a child in motion: When Lessie runs she runs so fast thatSometimes she falls downBut she gets right up and brushes her kneesAnd runs again as fast as she canPast red housesand parked carsand bicyclesand sleeping dogsand cartwheeling girlsand wrestling boysand Mr. Taylor's record storeAll the way to the cornerTo meet her mama The two-and three-word lines list the people and things Lessie pa.s.ses as she's running, and also give a sense of her feet pounding on the pavement in her breathless sprint down the street, until she finally slows down when she reaches the corner.

Contrast this with the effect that meter has in Douglas Florian's poem about waiting for winter to end.

When winter winds wind down and end...Then spring is coming round the bend.When winter ice begins to thaw...Then spring is knocking at the door.When winter snow is nowhere found...Then spring, you know, has come to town.

Florian has cleverly used meter to slow down the reading of the first line of each stanza and to speed up the reading of the second, giving us a sense of winter's prolonged stay and the spring's welcome arrival.

Modern poetry had gradually moved away from a reliance on a strict rhythm and the use of end rhymes. Poems need not rhyme at all, and free verse free verse breaks away from formal metrical patterns altogether. Arnold Adoff is one of the best-known children's poets who brings a modern vision to poetry. His poems often tell a story by combining strong feeling with action. breaks away from formal metrical patterns altogether. Arnold Adoff is one of the best-known children's poets who brings a modern vision to poetry. His poems often tell a story by combining strong feeling with action.

i am near the shoulderof the girlin the leadand maybe this lead girllooksbackfor a secondto see if i am stillon her shoulderthen my eyestell hergoodbye In Adoff's poems, the placement of the words on the page is almost like a road map, giving readers guidance as to how they should read the poems aloud.

THE IMAGES OF POETRY.

Since poems are compact, there can be no wasted words. The poet carefully chooses precise, exact words to evoke the desired mood or feeling, or to surprise the reader with an unexpected-but perfect-comparison. Poetry uses metaphor metaphor, bringing unrelated things together to point out similarities or differences. Pay close attention to the way Gwendolyn Brooks uses words to create images and feelings in "Cynthia in the Snow" from her book Bronzeville Boys and Girls Bronzeville Boys and Girls: It SUSHES SUSHES.It hushesThe loudness in the road.It flitter-twitters,And laughs away from me.It laughs a lovely whiteness,And whitely whirs away,To beSome otherwhere,Still white as milk or s.h.i.+rts.So beautiful it hurts.

Brooks uses imagery to appeal to the senses of hearing, sight, and touch, making us feel as though we are right in the midst of a snow flurry. Her playful use of words-"laughs away from me," "whitely," and "otherwhere"-is original and inventive and yet can be immediately understood. On a metaphorical level, Brooks writes about snow as if it were a person, another child perhaps, teasing and enticing Cynthia as a playmate might do.

THE IDEAS OF POETRY.

Like "Cynthia in the Snow," good children's poetry gives fresh vision to common things and experiences. It can appeal to the intellect as well as the emotions, as it extends and enriches meaning in everyday life. In looking at children's poetry on an intellectual level, we need to keep in mind the typical interests and concerns of childhood: relations.h.i.+ps with friends and family, the outdoors, daily routines, play, animals, and ordinary everyday things such as safety pins or socks-these are pieces of the child's world. We can find them all in good poetry for children.

When we evaluate children's poetry, we need to consider the quality of the poetry itself by thinking about how it sounds, what it says, and how it says it. Read poetry aloud. A good poem sounds natural, even if it rhymes. Look at the words that have been used to compose the poem. Do they seem unchangeable? What kinds of specific and implied comparisons has the poet made? How has imagery been used? Think about the idea presented in the poem. Does it show a fresh view of something with which a child is likely to be familiar? Does it appeal to the mind through the senses? Does it leave a lingering image in the mind of the reader?

In addition to thinking about the quality of the poetry itself, we also need to consider the manner in which it is presented in a book. Poetry published for children exists in great quant.i.ty and variety. We find books that appeal to all ages from infancy up through the teen years. There are anthologies of cla.s.sic poems, some of which were written specifically for children and some of which were written for adults but can be enjoyed by children. There are collections of poems by individual poets. There are single poems that are ill.u.s.trated and published as individual picture books, as well as picture-book texts written in verse. And there are collections of songs published in anthologies, in addition to single songs published in picture-book editions. There are novels written in verse. Because poetry, rhymes, and verse appeal to a broad range of ages, we need to think in terms of audience when we evaluate individual volumes of poetry. Let's take a look at some of these categories, beginning with rhymes for the very youngest.

NURSERY RHYMES.

Nursery rhymes recited to children and handed down through generations have come to be a.s.sociated with the appropriately fanciful name Mother Goose. In their authoritative work on the subject, The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes, folklore scholars Peter and Iona Opie remark that while many scholarly studies have attempted to a.n.a.lyze the symbolic and historical nature of the rhymes, these interpretations are largely speculative. The rhymes themselves have survived not because of a great underlying meaning-indeed, many of them make little sense at all-but because of their sound: "[T]hese trivial verses have endured where newer and more ambitious compositions have become dated and forgotten. They have endured often for nine or ten generations, sometimes for considerably more, and scarcely altered in their journey."

While surviving as oral literature for generations, the rhymes began to be published in books especially created for children in the early eighteenth century. They are among the earliest children's books published in both England and the United States. For the most part the rhymes they contain are familiar to English-speaking children today: "Baa, Baa, Black Sheep," "Little Jack Horner," and "This Little Pig Went to Market" among them.