Coal Part 2

The illuminating gas which is obtained from coal by destructive distillation consists chiefly of hydrogen and gaseous hydrocarbons, the most abundant of the latter being marsh gas. There are also present in smaller quant.i.ties the two oxides of carbon, the monoxide and the dioxide, which are gaseous at ordinary temperatures, together with other impurities. Coal-gas is burnt just as it is delivered from the mains--it is not at present utilized as a source of raw material in the sense that the tar is thus made use of. In some cases gas is used as fuel, as in gas-stoves and gas-engines, and in the so-called "gas-producers," in which the coal, instead of being used as a direct source of heat, is partially burnt in suitable furnaces, and the combustible gas thus arising, consisting chiefly of carbon monoxide, is conveyed to the place where it undergoes complete combustion, and is thus utilized as a source of heat.

Summing up the uses of coal thus far considered, we see that this mineral is being consumed as fuel, for the production of c.o.ke, for the manufacture of gas, and in many other ways. Lavishly as Nature has provided us with this source of power and wealth, the idea naturally suggests itself whether we are not drawing too liberally upon our capital. The question of coal supply crops up from time to time, and the public mind is periodically agitated about the prospects of its continuance. How long we have been draining our coal resources it is difficult to ascertain. There is some evidence that coal-mining was carried on during the Roman occupation. In the reign of Richard I. there is distinct evidence of coal having been dug in the diocese of Durham. The oldest charters take us back to the early part of the thirteenth century for Scotland, and to the year 1239 for England, when King Henry III. granted a right of sale to the townsmen of Newcastle. With respect to the metropolis, Bishop Watson, on the authority of Anderson's _History of Commerce_, states that coal was introduced as fuel at the beginning of the fourteenth century. In these early days, when it was brought from the north by s.h.i.+ps, it was known as "sea-coal":--

"Go; and we'll have a posset for 't soon at night, in faith, at the latter end of a sea-coal fire."--_Merry Wives of Windsor_, Act I., Sc. iv.

That the fuel was received at first with disfavour appears from the fact that in the reign of Edward I. the n.o.bility and gentry made a complaint to the king objecting to its use, on the ground of its being a public nuisance. By the middle of the seventeenth century the use of coal was becoming more general in London, chiefly owing to the scarcity of wood; and its effects upon the atmosphere of the town will be inferred from a proclamation issued in the reign of Elizabeth, prohibiting its use during the sitting of Parliament, for fear of injuring the health of the knights of the s.h.i.+re. About 1649 the citizens again pet.i.tioned Parliament against the use of this fuel on account of the stench; and about the beginning of that century "the nice dames of London would not come into any house or roome when sea-coales were burned, nor willingly eat of meat that was either sod or roasted with sea-coale fire" (_Stow's Annals_).

For many centuries therefore we have been drawing upon our coal supplies, and using up the mineral at an increasing rate. According to a recent estimate by Professor Hull, from the beginning of the present century to 1875 the output has been more than doubled for each successive quarter century. The actual amount of coal raised in the United Kingdom between 1882 and the present time averages annually about 170 million tons, corresponding in money value to about 45,000,000 per annum. In 1860 the amount of coal raised in Great Britain was a little more than 80 million tons, and Professor Hull estimated that at that rate of consumption our supplies of workable coal would hold out for a thousand years. Since then the available stock has been diminished by some 3,650 million tons, and even this deduction, we are told on the same authority, has not materially affected our total supply. The possibility of a coal famine need, therefore, cause no immediate anxiety; but we cannot "eat our loaf and have it too," and sooner or later the continuous drain upon our coal resources must make itself felt. The first effect will probably be an increase in price owing to the greater depth at which the coal will have to be worked. The whole question of our coal supply has, however, recently a.s.sumed a new aspect by the discovery (February 1890) of coal at a depth of 1,160 feet at Dover. To quote the words of Mr. W. Whitaker--"It may be indeed that the coal supply of the future will be largely derived from the South-East of England, and some day it may happen, from the exhaustion of our northern coal-fields, that we in the south may be able successfully to perform a task now proverbially unprofitable--_we may carry coal to Newcastle_."

The coal-fields of Great Britain and Ireland occupy, in round numbers, an area of 11,860 square miles, or about one-tenth of the whole area of the land surface of the country. Within this area, and down to a depth of 4,000 feet, lie the main deposits of our available wealth. Some idea of the amount of coal underlying this area will be gathered from the table[2]

on the next page.

This supply, amounting to over 90,000 million tons, refers to the exposed coal-fields and to workable seams, _i.e._ those above one foot in thickness. But in addition to this, we have a large amount of coal at workable depths under formations of later geological age than the Carboniferous, such as the Permian formation of northern and central England. Adding the estimated quant.i.ty of coal from this source to that contained in the exposed coal-fields as given above, we arrive at the total available supply. This is estimated to be about 146,454 million tons. To this we may one day have to add the coal under the south-eastern part of England.

Amount of coal in millions of tons to depths not exceeding Coal Fields of-- 4,000 feet.

South Wales 32,456 Forest of Dean 265 Bristol 4,219 Warwicks.h.i.+re 459 S. Staffords.h.i.+re, Shrops.h.i.+re, Forest of Wyre and Clee Hills 1,906 Leicesters.h.i.+re 837 North Wales 2,005 Anglesey 5 N. Staffords.h.i.+re 3,825 Lancas.h.i.+re and Ches.h.i.+re 5,546 Yorks.h.i.+re, Derbys.h.i.+re, and Northumberland 18,172 Black Burton 71 Northumberland and Durham 10,037 c.u.mberland 405 Scotland 9,844 Ireland 156

It is important to bear in mind, that out of the 170 million tons of coal now being raised annually we only use a small proportion, viz. from 5 to 6 per cent. for gas-making. The largest amount (33 per cent.) is used for iron-smelting,[3] and about 15 per cent. is exported; the remainder is consumed in factories, dwelling-houses, for locomotion, and in the smaller industries.

The enormous advancement which has taken place of late years in the industrial applications of electricity has given rise to the belief that coal-gas will in time become superseded as an illuminating agent, and that the supply of tar may in consequence fall off. So far, however, the introduction of electric-lighting has had no appreciable effect upon the consumption of gas, and even when the time of general electric-lighting arrives there will arise as a consequence an increased demand for gas as a fuel in gas engines. Moreover, the use of gas for heating and cooking purposes is likely to go on increasing. Nor must it be forgotten that the quant.i.ty of tar produced in gas-works is now greater than is actually required by the colour-manufacturer, and much of this by-product is burnt as fuel, so that if the manufacture of gas were to suffer to any considerable extent there would still be tar enough to meet our requirements at the present rate of consumption of the tar-products. Then again, the value of the tar, c.o.ke, and ammoniacal liquor is of such a proportion as compared with the cost of the raw material, coal, that there is a good margin for lowering the price of gas when the compet.i.tion between the latter and electricity actually comes about. It will not then be only a struggle between the two illuminants, but it will be a question of electricity _versus_ gas, _plus_ tar and ammonia.

While the electrician is pus.h.i.+ng forward with rapid strides, the chemist is also moving onwards, and every year witnesses the discovery of new tar products, or the utilization of const.i.tuents which were formerly of little or no value. Thus if the cost of generating and distributing electricity is being lowered, on the other hand the value of coal tar is likely to go on advancing, and it would be rash to predict which will come out triumphant in the end. But even if electricity were to gain the day it would be worth while to distil coal at the pit's mouth for the sake of the by-products, and there is, moreover, the tar from the c.o.ke ovens to fall back upon--a source which even before the use of coal-gas the wise Bishop of Llandaff advised us not to neglect.

CHAPTER II.

The nature of the products obtained by the destructive distillation of coal varies according to the temperature of distillation, and the age or degree of carbonization of the coal. The watery liquor obtained by the dry distillation of wood is acid, and contains among other things acetic acid, which is sometimes prepared in this way, and from its origin is occasionally spoken of as "wood vinegar." The older the wood, the more complete its degree of conversion into coal, and the smaller the quant.i.ty of oxygen it contains, the more alkaline does the watery liquid become.

Thus the gas-liquor is distinctly alkaline, and contains a considerable quant.i.ty of ammonia, besides other volatile bases. The uses of ammonia are manifold, and nearly our whole supply of this valuable substance is now derived from gas-liquor. The presence of ammonia in this liquor is accounted for when it is known that this compound is a gas composed of nitrogen and hydrogen. It has already been explained that coal contains from one to two per cent. of nitrogen, and during the process of distillation about one-fifth of this nitrogen is converted into ammonia, the remainder being converted partly into other bases, while a small quant.i.ty remains in the c.o.ke.

Ammonia, the "volatile alkali" of the old chemists, and its salts are of importance in pharmacy, but the chief use of this compound is to supply nitrogen for the growth of plants. Plants must have nitrogen in some form or another, and as they cannot a.s.similate it _directly_ from the atmosphere where it exists in the free state, some suitable nitrogen compound must be supplied to the soil. It is possible that certain leguminous plants may derive their nitrogen from the atmosphere through the intervention of micro-organisms, which appear capable of fixing free nitrogen and of supplying it to the plant upon whose roots they flourish.

But this is second-hand nitrogen so far as concerns the plant. It is true also that the atmosphere contains small traces of ammonia and acid oxides of nitrogen, which are dissolved by rain and snow, and thus get washed down into the soil. These are the natural sources of plant nitrogen. But in agricultural operations, where large crops have to be raised as rapidly as possible, some additional source of nitrogen must be supplied, and this is the object of manuring the soil.

A manure, chemically considered, is a mixture of substances capable of supplying the necessary nitrogenous and mineral food for the nourishment of the growing plant. The ordinary farm or stable manure contains decomposing nitrogenous organic matter, in which the nitrogen is given off as ammonia, and thus furnishes the soil with which it is mixed with the necessary fertilizer. But the supply of this manure is limited, and we have to fall back upon gas-liquor and native nitrates to meet the existing wants of the agriculturist. Important as is ammonia for the growth of vegetation, it is not in this form that the majority of plants take up their nitrogen. Soluble nitrates are, in most cases, more efficient fertilizers than the salts of ammonia, and the ammonia which is supplied to the soil is converted into nitrates therein before the plant can a.s.similate the nitrogen. The oxidation of ammonia into nitric acid takes place by virtue of a process called "nitrification," and there is very good reason for believing that this transformation is the work of a micro-organism present in the soil. The gas liquor thus supplies food to a minute organism which converts the ammonia into a form available for the higher plants. Some branches of agriculture--such as the cultivation of the beet for sugar manufacture--are so largely dependent upon an artificial source of nitrogen, that their very existence is bound up with the supply of ammonia salts or other nitrogenous manures. The relations.h.i.+p between the manufacture of beet-sugar and the distillation of coal for the production of gas is thus closer than many readers will have imagined; for while the supply of native guano or nitrate is uncertain, and its freight costly on account of the distance from which it has to be s.h.i.+pped, the sulphate of ammonia from gas-liquor is always at hand, and available for the purposes of fertilization.

Then again, there are other products of industrial value which are a.s.sociated with ammonia, such, for example, as ammonia-alum and caustic soda. This last is one of the most important chemical compounds manufactured on a large scale, and is consumed in enormous quant.i.ties for the manufacture of paper and soap, and other purposes. Salts of this alkali are also essential for gla.s.s making. Of late years a method for the production of caustic soda has been introduced which depends upon the use of ammonia, and as this process is proving a formidable rival to the older method of alkali manufacture, it may be said that such indispensable articles as paper, soap, and gla.s.s are now to some extent dependent upon gas-liquor, and may in course of time become still more intimately connected with the manufacture of coal-gas.

But quant.i.tative statements must be given in order to bring home to general readers the actual value of the small percentage of nitrogen present in coal. Thus it has been estimated, that one ton of coal gives enough ammonia to furnish about 30 lbs. of the crude sulphate. The present value of this salt is roughly about 12 per ton. The ten million tons of coal distilled annually for gas making would thus give 133,929 tons of sulphate, equal in money value to 1,607,148, supposing the whole of the ammonia to be sold in this form. To this may be added the ammonia obtained during the distillation of shale and the carbonization of coal for c.o.ke, the former source furnis.h.i.+ng about 22,000 tons, and the latter about 2500 tons annually. Small as is the legacy of nitrogen bequeathed to us from the Carboniferous period, we see that it sums up to a considerable annual addition to our industrial resources.

The three products resulting from the distillation of coal--viz. the gas, ammoniacal-liquor, and c.o.ke--having now been made to furnish their tale, we have next to deal with the tar. In the early days of gas manufacture this black, viscid, unsavoury substance was in every sense a waste product. No use had been found for it, and it was burnt, or otherwise disposed of. No demand for the tar existed which could enable the gas manufacturers to get rid of their ever-increasing acc.u.mulation. Wood-tar had previously been used as a cheap paint for wood and metal-work, and it was but a natural suggestion that coal-tar should be applied to the same purposes. It was found that the quality of the tar was improved by getting rid of the more volatile portions by boiling it in open pans; but this waste--to say nothing of the danger of fire--was checked by a suggestion made by Acc.u.m in 1815, who showed that by boiling down the tar in a still instead of in open pans the volatile portions could be condensed and collected, thus furnis.h.i.+ng an oil which could be used by the varnish maker as a subst.i.tute for turpentine. A few years later, in 1822, the distillation of tar was carried on at Leith by Drs. Longstaff and Dalston, the "spirit" being used by Mackintosh of Glasgow for dissolving india-rubber for the preparation of that waterproof fabric which to this day bears the name of the original manufacturer. The residue in the still was burnt for lamp-black. Of such little value was the tar at this time that Dr. Longstaff tells us that the gas company gave them the tar on condition that they removed it at their own expense. It appears also that tar was distilled on a large scale near Manchester in 1834, the "spirit"

being used for dissolving the residual pitch so as to make a black varnish.

But the production of gas went on increasing at a greater rate than the demand for tar for the above-mentioned purposes, and it was not till 1838 that a new branch of industry was inaugurated, which converted the distillation of this material from an insignificant into an important manufacture. In that year a patent was taken out by Beth.e.l.l for preserving timber by impregnating it with the heavy oil from coal-tar. The use of tar for this purpose had been suggested by Lebon towards the end of the last century, and a patent had been granted in this country in 1836 to Franz Moll for this use of tar-products. But Beth.e.l.l's process was put into a working form by the great improvements in the apparatus introduced by Breant and Burt, and to the latter is due the credit of having founded an industry which is still carried on by Messrs. Burt, Bolton and Haywood on a colossal scale. The "pickling" or "creosoting" of timber is effected in an iron cylindrical boiler, into which the timber is run; the cylinder being then closed the air is pumped out, and the air contained in the pores of the wood thus escapes. The creosoting oil, slightly warmed, is then allowed to flow into the boiler, and thus penetrates into the pores of the wood, the complete saturation of which is insured by afterwards pumping air into the cylinder and leaving the timber in the oil for some hours under a pressure of 8 to 10 atmospheres.

All timber which is buried underground, or submerged in water, is impregnated with this antiseptic creosote in order to prevent decay. It will be evident that this application of tar-products must from the very commencement have had an enormous influence upon the distillation of tar as a branch of industry. Consider the miles of wooden sleepers over which our railways are laid, and the network of telegraph wires carried all over the country by wooden poles, of which the ends are buried in the earth.

Consider also the many subaqueous works which necessitate the use of timber, and we shall gain an idea of the demand for heavy coal-tar oil created by the introduction of Breant's process. Under the treatment described a cubic foot of wood absorbs about a gallon of oil, and by far the largest quant.i.ty of the tar oils is consumed in this way at the present time. Now in the early days of timber-pickling the lighter oils of the tar, which first come over on distillation, and which are too volatile for the purpose of creosoting, were in much about the same industrial position as the tar itself before its application as a timber preservative. The light oil had a limited use as a solvent for waterproofing and varnish making, and a certain quant.i.ty was burnt as coal-tar naphtha in specially constructed lamps, the invention of the late Read Holliday of Huddersfield, whose first patent was taken out in 1848 (see Fig. 4). Up to this time, be it remembered, that chemists had not found out what this naphtha contained. But science soon laid hands on the materials furnished by the tar-distiller, and the naphtha was one of the first products which was made to reveal the secret of its hidden treasures to the scientific investigator. From this period science and industry became indissolubly united, and the researches of chemists were carried on hand-in-hand with the technical developments of coal-tar products.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 4.--Read Holliday's lamp for burning light coal-tar oils. The oil is contained in the cistern _c_, from whence it flows down the pipe, when the stopc.o.c.k is opened, into the burner _a_. Below the burner is a little cup, in which some of the oil is kept burning, and the heat from this flame volatilizes the oil as it flows down the pipe, the vapour thus generated issuing from the jets in the burner and there undergoing ignition. The burner and cup are shown on an enlarged scale at _a_ in the lower figure.]

In 1825 Michael Faraday discovered a hydrocarbon in the oil produced by the condensation of "oil gas"--an illuminating gas obtained by the destructive distillation of oleaginous materials. This hydrocarbon was a.n.a.lysed by its ill.u.s.trious discoverer, and named in accordance with his results "bicarburet of hydrogen." In 1834 the same hydrocarbon was obtained by Mitscherlich by heating benzoic acid with lime, and by Peligot by the dry distillation of calcium benzoate. For this reason the compound was named "benzin" by Mitscherlich, which name was changed into "benzol"

by Liebig. In this country the hydrocarbon is known at the present time as benzene. Twenty years after Faraday's discovery, viz. in 1845, Hofmann proved the existence of benzene in the light oils from coal-tar, and in 1848 Hofmann's pupil, Mansfield, isolated considerable quant.i.ties of this hydrocarbon from the said light oils by fractional distillation. At the time of these investigations no great demand for benzene existed, but the work of Hofmann and Mansfield prepared the way for its manufacture on a large scale, when, a few years later, the first coal-tar colouring-matter was discovered by our countryman, W. H. Perkin.

It is always of interest to trace the influence of scientific discovery upon different branches of industry. As soon as it had been shown that benzene could be obtained from coal-tar, the nitro-derivative of this hydrocarbon--_i.e._ the oily compound produced by the action of nitric acid upon benzene--was introduced as a subst.i.tute for bitter almond oil under the name of "essence of mirbane." Nitrobenzene has an odour resembling that of bitter almond oil, and it is still used for certain purposes where the latter can be replaced by its cheaper subst.i.tute, such as for the scenting of soap. Although the isolation of benzene from coal-tar gave an impetus to the manufacture of nitrobenzene, no use existed for the latter beyond its very limited application as "essence of mirbane," and the production of this compound was at that time too insignificant to take rank as an important branch of chemical industry.

The year 1856 marks an epoch in the history of the utilization of coal-tar products with which the name of Perkin will ever be a.s.sociated. In the course of some experiments, having for their object the artificial production of quinine, this investigator was led to try the action of oxidizing agents upon a base known as aniline, and he thus obtained a violet colouring matter--the first dye from coal-tar--which was manufactured under a patent granted in 1858, and introduced into commerce under the name of mauve. A brief sketch of the history of aniline will serve to show how Perkin's discovery gave a new value to the light oils from coal-tar and raised the manufacture of nitrobenzene into an important branch of industry.

Thirty years before Perkin's experiments the Dutch chemist Unverdorben obtained (1826) a liquid base by the distillation of indigo, which had the property of forming beautifully crystalline salts, and which he named for this reason "crystallin." In 1834 Runge discovered the same base in coal-tar, although its ident.i.ty was not known to him at the time, and because it gave a bluish colour when acted upon by bleaching-powder, he called it "kyanol." Again in 1840, by distilling a product obtained by the action of caustic alkalies upon indigo, Fritzsche prepared the same base, and gave it the name of aniline, from the Spanish designation of the indigo plant, "anil," derived from the native Indian word, by which name the base is known at the present time. That aniline could be obtained by the reduction of nitrobenzene was shown by Zinin in 1842, who used sulphide of ammonium for reducing the nitrobenzene, and named the resulting base "benzidam." The following year Hofmann showed that crystallin, kyanol, aniline, and benzidam were all one and the same base.

Thus when the discovery of mauve opened up a demand for aniline on the large scale, the labours of chemists, from Unverdorben in 1826 to Hofmann in 1843, had prepared the way for the manufacturer. It must be understood that although Runge had discovered aniline in coal-tar, this is not the source of our present supply, for the quant.i.ty is too small to make it worth extracting. A mere trace of aniline is present in the tar ready formed; from the time this base was wanted in large quant.i.ties it had to be made by nitrating benzene, and then reducing the nitrobenzene.

The light oils of tar distillation rejected by the timber-pickling industry now came to the front, imbued with new interest to the technologist as a source of benzene for the manufacture of aniline. The inauguration of this manufacture, like the introduction of steam locomotion, is connected with a sad catastrophe. Mansfield, who first showed manufacturers how to separate benzene and other hydrocarbons from the light oils of coal-tar, and who devised for this purpose apparatus similar in principle to that used on a large scale at the present time (see Fig. 5), met with an accident which resulted in his death. In the upper part of a house in Holborn in February 1856, this pioneer was carrying on his experiments, when the contents of a still boiled over and caught fire. In his endeavours to extinguish the flames he received the injuries which terminated fatally. Applied science no less than pure science has had its martyrs, and among these Mansfield must be ranked.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 5.--Mansfield's still. R the heating burner, A the body of the still with stopc.o.c.k, _i_, for running out the contents. B the still-head kept in a cistern, C, of hot water or other liquid. The vapour generated by the boiling of the liquid in A, partly condenses in B, from whence the higher boiling-point portion flows back into the still. The uncondensed vapour pa.s.ses into the condensing-worm, D, which is kept cool by a stream of water, and from thence flows into the receiver S. By opening _m_ in the side-pipe any higher boiling-point oil condensing in the delivery-pipe can be run back into the still.]

The operation of tar-distilling is about as unromantic a process as can be imagined, but it must be briefly described before the subsequent developments of the industry can be appreciated properly. It has already been explained that the tar is a complex mixture of many different substances. These various compounds boil at certain definite temperatures, the boiling-point of a chemical compound being an inherent property. If a mixture of substances boiling at different temperatures is heated in a suitable vessel the compounds distil over, broadly speaking, in the order of their boiling-points. The separation by this process is not absolute, because compounds boiling at a certain temperature have a tendency to bring over with them the vapours of other compounds which boil at a higher temperature. But for practical purposes it will be sufficient to consider that the general tendency is for the compounds of low boiling-point to come over first, then the compounds of higher boiling-point, and finally those of the highest boiling-point. This is the principle made use of by the tar-distiller. The tar-still is a large iron pot provided with a still-head from which the vapours boil out into a coil of iron pipe kept cool in a vessel of water (see Fig. 6). The still is heated by a fire beneath it, and the different portions which condense in the iron coil are received in vessels which are changed as the different fractions of the tar come over. The process is what chemists would call a rough fractional distillation. The first fractions are liquid at ordinary temperatures, and the water in the condenser is kept cold; then, as the boiling-point rises, the fraction contains a hydrocarbon which solidifies on cooling, and the water in the condenser is made hot to prevent the choking up of the coil. Every one of these fractions of coal-tar, from the beginning to the end of the process, has its story to tell--all the chief const.i.tuents of the tar separated by this means have by chemical science been converted into useful products.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 6.--Sectional diagram of tar-still with arched bottom.

The fireplace is at _i_; the hot gases pa.s.s over the bridge _k_ and through _g_ into the flues _h_, _h_. The pipe at _c_ is to supply the still with tar; _a_ is the exit pipe connected with the condenser, and _b_ a man-hole for cleaning out the still. The condenser and bottom pipe for drawing off pitch have been omitted to avoid complication.]

It is customary at the present time to collect four distinct fractions from the period when the tar begins to boil quietly, _i.e._ from the point when the small quant.i.ty of watery liquor which is unavoidably entangled with the tar has distilled over, by which time the temperature in the still is about 110 C. The small fraction that comes over up to this temperature const.i.tutes what the tar-distiller calls "first runnings." From 110 C. to 210 C. there comes over a limpid inflammable liquid known as "light oil," and this is succeeded by a fraction which shows a tendency to solidify on cooling, owing to the separation of a solid crystalline hydrocarbon known as naphthalene. This last fraction, boiling between 210 C. and 240 C., is known as "carbolic oil," because it contains, in addition to the naphthalene, the chief portion of the carbolic acid present in the tar. From 240 C. to 270 C. there comes over another fraction which shows but little tendency to solidify in the condensing coil, and which is known as "heavy oil," or "creosote oil."

From 270 C. up to the end of the distillation there distils a fraction which is viscid in consistency, and has a tendency to solidify on cooling owing to the separation of another crystalline hydrocarbon known as anthracene, and which gives the name of "anthracene oil" to this last fraction. When the latter has been collected there remains in the still the black viscid substance known as pitch, which is obtained of any desired consistency by leaving more or less of the anthracene oil mixed with it, or by afterwards mixing it with the heavy oil from previous distillations. The process carried out in the tar-still thus separates the tar into--(1) First runnings, up to 110 C. (2) Light oil, from 110 to 210 C. (3) Carbolic oil, from 210 to 240 C. (4) Creosote oil, from 240 to 270 C. (5) Anthracene oil, from 270 to pitch. (6) Pitch, left in still.

It has already been said that coal-tar is a complex mixture of various distinct chemical compounds. Included among the gases, ammoniacal liquor, and tar, the compounds which are known to be formed by the destructive distillation of coal already reach to nearly one hundred and fifty in number. Of the substances present in the tar, about a dozen are utilized as raw materials by the manufacturer, and these are contained in the fractions described above. The first runnings and light oil contain a series of important hydrocarbons, of which the three first members are known to chemists as benzene, toluene, and xylene, the latter being present in three different modifications. The carbolic oil furnishes carbolic acid and naphthalene, and the anthracene oil the hydrocarbon which gives its name to that fraction. Here we have only half a dozen distinct chemical compounds to deal with, and if we confine our attention to these for the present, we shall be enabled to gain a good general idea of what chemistry has done with these raw materials. The products separated during the processes which have to be resorted to for the isolation of these raw materials have also their uses, which will be pointed out incidentally.

Beginning with the first runnings and the light oil, from which the hydrocarbons of the benzene series are separated, we have to make ourselves acquainted with the treatment to which these fractions are submitted by the tar-distiller. The light oil is first distilled from an iron still, similar to a tar-still, and the first portions which come over are added to the oily fraction brought over by the water of the first runnings. The separation of the oil from the water in this last fraction is a simple matter, because the hydrocarbons float as a distinct layer on the water, and do not mix with it. We have at this stage, therefore, four products to consider, viz. 1st, the oil from the first runnings; 2nd, the first portions of the light oil; 3rd, the later portions of the light oil; and 4th, the residue in the still. The first and second are mixed together, and the third is washed alternately with alkali and acid to remove acid and basic impurities, and can then be mixed with the first and second products. The total product is then ready for the next operation.

The last portion of the light oil which remains in the still is useless as a source of benzene hydrocarbons, and goes into the heavy oil of the later tar fractions.

The process of purification is thus far one of fractional distillation combined with chemical was.h.i.+ng. In fact, all the processes of purification to which these oils are submitted are essentially of the same character.

The principle of fractional distillation has already been explained sufficiently for our present purpose. The process of was.h.i.+ng a liquid may appear mysterious to the uninitiated, but in principle it is extremely simple. If we pour some water into a bottle, and then add some liquid which does not mix with the water--say paraffin oil--the two liquids form distinct layers, the one floating on the other. On shaking the bottle so as to mix the contents, the two liquids form a h.o.m.ogeneous mixture at first, but on standing for a short time separation into two layers again takes place. Now if there was present in the paraffin oil some substance soluble in the oil, but more soluble in water, such as alcohol, we should by the operation described wash the alcohol out of the oil, and when the liquids separated into layers after agitation the watery layer would contain the alcohol. By drawing off the oil or the water the former would then be obtained free from alcohol--it would have been "washed." This operation is precisely what the manufacturer does on a large scale with the coal-tar oils. These oils contain certain impurities of which some are of an acid character and dissolve in alkalies, while others are basic and dissolve in acid. The oil is therefore agitated in a suitable vessel provided with mechanical stirring gear with an aqueous solution of caustic soda, and after separation into layers the alkaline solution retaining the acid impurities is drawn off. Then the oil may be washed with water in the same way to remove the lingering traces of alkali, and then with acid--sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol--which dissolves out basic impurities and certain hydrocarbons not belonging to the benzene series which it is desirable to get rid of. A final was.h.i.+ng with water removes any acid that may be retained by the oil.

The total product containing the benzene hydrocarbons is put through such a series of was.h.i.+ng operations as above described, and is then ready for separation into its const.i.tuents by another and more perfect process of fractional distillation. This final separation is effected in a piece of apparatus somewhat complicated in structure, but simple in principle. It is a development on a large scale of the apparatus used by Mansfield in his early experiments. The details of construction are not essential to the present treatment of the subject, but it will suffice to say that the vapours of the boiling hydrocarbons ascend through upright columns, in which the compounds of high boiling-point first condense and run back into the still, while the lower boiling-point compounds do not condense in the columns, but pa.s.s on into a separate condenser, where they liquefy and are collected. But even with this rectification we do not get a perfect separation--the hydrocarbons are not perfectly pure from a chemical point of view, although they are pure enough for manufacturing purposes. Thus the first fraction consists of benzene containing a small percentage of toluene, then comes over a mixture containing a larger proportion of toluene, then comes a purer toluene mixed with a small percentage of xylene. The boiling-points of the three hydrocarbons are 81 C., 111 C., and 140 C. respectively; but owing to the nature of fractional distillation, a compound of a certain boiling-point always brings over with it a certain quant.i.ty of the compound of higher boiling-point, and that is why the rectifying column effects only a partial separation.

Of the hydrocarbons thus separated, benzene and toluene are by far the most important; there is but a limited use for the xylenes at present, and these and the hydrocarbons of higher boiling-point belonging to the same series which distil over between 140 and 150 const.i.tute what is known as "solvent naphtha," because it is used for dissolving india-rubber for waterproofing purposes. The hydrocarbons of still higher boiling-point which remain in the still are used as burning naphtha for lamps. If benzene of a higher degree of purity is required--as it is for the manufacture of certain colouring-matters--the fraction containing this hydrocarbon can be again distilled through the rectifying column, and a large proportion of the toluene thus separated from it. Finally, pure benzene can be obtained by submitting the rectified hydrocarbon to a process of refrigeration in a mixture of ice and salt, when the benzene solidifies to a white crystalline solid, while the toluene does not solidify, and can be drained away from the benzene crystals which liquefy at about 5 C.

The account rendered by the technologist with respect to the light oils of the tar is thus a pretty good one. Already we see that benzene, toluene, solvent naphtha, and burning naphtha are separated from them. Even the alkaline and acid was.h.i.+ngs may be made to surrender their contained products, for the first of these contains a certain quant.i.ty of carbolic acid, and the acid contains a strongly smelling base called pyridine, for which there is at present no great demand, but which may one day become of importance. The actual quant.i.ty of benzene in tar is a little over one per cent. by weight, and of toluene there is somewhat less. The naphthas are present to the extent of about 35 per cent.

Now let us consider some of the transformations which benzene and toluene undergo in the hands of the manufacturing chemist. The production of aniline from benzene by acting upon this hydrocarbon with nitric acid, and then reducing the nitrobenzene, has already been referred to. For this purpose we now heat the nitrobenzene with iron dust and a little hydrochloric (muriatic) acid, and then distil over the aniline by means of a current of steam blown through the still. By a similar process toluene is converted into nitrotoluene, and the latter into toluidine.

The large quant.i.ty of aniline and toluidine now made has opened up a channel for the use of the waste borings from cast-iron. These are ground to a fine powder under heavy mill-stones, and const.i.tute a most valuable reducing agent, known technically as "iron swarf." The metallic iron introduced in this form into the aniline still is converted into an oxide of iron by the action of the nitrobenzene, and this oxide of iron is used by the gas-maker for purifying the gas from sulphur as already described.

When the oxide of iron is exhausted, _i.e._ when it has taken up as much sulphur as it can, it goes to the vitriol-maker to be burnt as a source of this acid. Here we have a waste product of the aniline manufacture utilized for the purification of coal-gas, and finally being made to give up the sulphur, which it obtained primarily from the coal, for the production of sulphuric acid, which is consumed in nearly every branch of chemical industry.