Micrographia Part 22

[16] I took then a small Gla.s.s-pipe AB, about the bigness of a Swans quill, and about four foot long, which was very equally drawn, so that, as far as I could perceive, no one part was bigger then another: This Tube (being open at both ends) I fitted into another small Tube DE, that had a small bore just big enough to contain the small Pipe, and this was seal'd up at one, and open at the other, end; about which open end I fastned a small wooden box C with cement, so that filling the bigger Tube, and part of the box, with Quicksilver, I could thrust the smaller Tube into it, till it were all covered with the Quicksilver: Having thus done, I fastned my bigger Tube against the side of a wall, that it might stand the steadier, and plunging the small Tube cleer under the _Mercury_ in the box, I stopt the upper end of it very fast with cement, then lifting up the small Tube, I drew it up by a small pully, and a string that I had fastned to the top of the Room, and found the height of the _Mercurial Cylinder_ to be about twenty nine inches.

Then letting down the Tube again, I opened the top, and then thrust down the small Tube, till I perceived the Quicksilver to rise within it to a mark that I had plac'd just an inch from the top; and immediately clapping on a small piece of cement that I had kept warm, I with a hot Iron seal'd up the top very fast, then letting it cool (that both the cement might grow hard, and more especially, that the Air might come to its temper, natural for the Day I try'd the Experiment in) I observ'd diligently, and found the included Air to be exactly an Inch.

Here you are to take notice, that after the Air is seal'd up, the top of the Tube is not to be elevated above the superficies of the Quicksilver in the box, till the surface of that within the Tube be equal to it, for the Quicksilver (as I have elsewhere prov'd) being more heterogeneous to the Gla.s.s then the Air, will not naturally rise up so high within the small Pipe, as the superficies of the _Mercury_ in the box, and therefore you are to observe, how much below the outward superficies of the _Mercury_ in the box, that of the same in the Tube does stand, when the top being open, free ingress is admitted to the outward Air.

Having thus done, I permitted the _Cylinder_, or small Pipe, to rise out of the box, till I found the surface of the Quicksilver in the Pipe to be two inches above that in the box, and found the Air to have expanded it self but one sixteenth part of an inch; then drawing up the small pipe, till I found the height of the Quicksilver within to be four inches above that without, I observed the Air to be expanded only 1/7 of an inch more then it was at first, and to take up the room of 1-1/7 inch: then I raised the Tube till the Cylinder was six inches high, and found the Air to take up 1-2/9 inches of room in the Pipe; then to 8, 10, 12. &c. the expansion of the Air that I found to each of which Cylinders are set down in the following Table; where the first row signifies the height of the _Mercurial Cylinder_; the next, the expansion of the Air; the third, the pressure of the _Atmosphere_, or the highest _Cylinder_ of _Mercury_, which was then neer thirty inches: The last signifies the force of the Air so expanded, which is found by substracting the first row of numbers out of the third; for having found, that the outward Air would then keep up the Quicksilver to thirty inches, look whatever of that height is wanting must be attributed to the Elater of the Air depressing. And therefore having the Expansion in the second row, and the height of the subjacent _Cylinder_ of _Mercury_ in the first, and the greatest height of the _Cylinder_ of _Mercury_, which of it self counterballances the whole pressure of the _Atmosphere_; by substracting the numbers of the first row out of the numbers of the third, you will have the measure of the _Cylinders_ so deprest, and consequently the force of the Air, in the several Expansions, registred.

The height of the The Expansion The height of The strength Cylinder of Mercury, of the Air. the Mercury of the Elater that, together with that counter- of the expanded the Elater of the ballanc'd the Air.

included Air, Atmosphere.

ballanced the pressure of the Atmosphere.

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- 00 01 30 30 02 01-1/16 30 28 04 01-1/7 30 26 06 01-2/9 30 24 08 01-1/3 30 22 10 01-1/2 30 20 12 01-2/3 30 18 14 01-5/6 30 16 16 02-2/27 30 14 18 02-4/9 30 12 20 03 30 10 22 03-7/9 30 8 24 05-7/18 30 6 25 06-2/3 30 5 26 08-1/2 30 4 26-1/4 09-1/2 30 3-3/4 26-1/2 10-3/4 30 3-1/2 26-3/4 13 30 3-1/4 27 15-1/2 30 3

I had several other Tables of my Observations, and Calculations, which I then made; but it being above a twelve month since I made them; and by that means having forgot many circ.u.mstances and particulars, I was resolved to make them over once again, which I did _August_ the second 1661. with the very same Tube which I used the year before, when I first made the Experiment (for it being a very good one, I had carefully preserv'd it:) And after having tryed it over and over again; and being not well satisfied of some particulars, I, at last, having put all things in very good order, and being as attentive, and observant, as possibly I could, of every circ.u.mstance requisite to be taken notice of, did register my several Observations in this following Table. In the making of which, I did not exactly follow the method that I had used at first; but, having lately heard of Mr. _Townly_'s _Hypothesis_, I shap'd my course in such sort, as would be most convenient for the examination of that _Hypothesis_; the event of which you have in the latter part of the last Table.

The other Experiment was, to find what degrees of force were requisite to compress, or condense, the Air into such or such a bulk.

The manner of proceeding therein was this: I took a Tube about five foot long, one of whose ends was sealed up, and bended in the form of a _Syphon_, much like that represented in the fourth Figure of the 37.

_Scheme_, one side whereof AD, that was open at A, was about fifty inches long, the other side BC, shut at B, was not much above seven inches long, then placing it exactly perpendicular, I pour'd in a little Quicksilver, and found that the Air BC was 6-7/8 inches, or very near to seven; then pouring in Quicksilver at the longer Tube, I continued filling of it till the Air in the shorter part of it was contracted into half the former dimensions, and found the height exactly nine and twenty inches; and by making several other tryals, in several other degrees of condensation of the Air, I found them exactly answer the former _Hypothesis_.

But having (by reason it was a good while since I first made) forgotten many particulars, and being much unsatisfied in others, I made the Experiment over again, and, from the several tryals, collected the former part of the following Table: Where in the row next the left hand 24.

signifies the dimensions of the Air, sustaining only the pressure of the _Atmosphere_, which at that time was equal to a _Cylinder_ of _Mercury_ of nine and twenty inches: The next Figure above it (20) was the dimensions of the Air induring the first compression, made by a _Cylinder_ of _Mercury_ 5-3/16 high, to which the pressure of the _Atmosphere_ nine and twenty inches being added, the elastick strength of the Air so comprest will be found 34-3/16, &c.

_A Table of the Elastick power of the Air, both Experimentally and Hypothetically calculated, according to its various Dimensions._

The dimensions The height The Mercurial The sum or What they of the included of the Cylinder difference ought to Air. Mercurial added, or of these be according Cylinder taken from two to the counter- the former. Cylinders. Hypothesis.

pois'd by the Atmosphere.

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- 12 29 + 29 = 58 58 13 29 + 24-11/16 = 53-11/16 53-7/13 14 29 + 20-3/16 = 49-3/16 49-5/7 16 29 + 14 = 43 43-1/2 18 29 + 9-1/8 = 38-1/8 38-2/3 20 29 + 5-3/16 = 34-3/16 34-4/5 24 29 0 = 29 29 48 29 - 14-5/8 = 14-3/8 14-1/2 96 29 - 22-1/8 = 6-7/8 7-2/8 192 29 - 25-5/8 = 3-3/8 3-5/8 384 29 - 27-2/8 = 1-6/8 1-7/16 576 29 - 27-7/8 = 1-1/8 1-5/24 768 29 - 28-1/8 = 0-7/8 0-[7-1/4]/8 960 29 - 28-3/8 = 0-5/8 0-[5-4/5]/8 1152 29 - 28-7/16 = 0-9/16 0-10/16

From which Experiments, I think, we may safely conclude, that the Elater of the Air is reciprocal to its extension, or at least very neer. So that to apply it to our present purpose (which was indeed the chief cause of inventing these wayes of tryal) we will suppose a _Cylinder_ indefinitely extended upwards, [I say a _Cylinder_, not a piece of a _Cone_, because, as I may elsewhere shew in the Explication of Gravity, that _triplicate_ proportion of the shels of a Sphere, to their respective diameters, I suppose to be removed in this case by the decrease of the power of Gravity]

and the pressure of the Air at the bottom of this _Cylinder_ to be strong enough to keep up a _Cylinder_ of _Mercury_ of thirty inches: Now because by the most accurate tryals of the most ill.u.s.trious and incomparable Mr.

_Boyle_, published in his deservedly famous Pneumatick Book, the weight of Quicksilver, to that of the Air here below, is found neer about as fourteen thousand to one: If we suppose the parts of the _Cylinder_ of the _Atmosphere_ to be every where of an equal density, we shall (as he there deduces) find it extended to the height of thirty five thousand feet, or seven miles: But because by these Experiments we have somewhat confirm'd the hypothesis of the reciprocal proportion of the Elaters to the Extensions we shall find, that by supposing this _Cylinder_ of the _Atmosphere_ divided into a thousand parts, each of which being equivalent to thirty five feet, or seven geometrical paces, that is, each of these divisions containing as much Air as is suppos'd in a _Cylinder_ neer the earth of equal diameter, and thirty five foot high, we shall find the lowermost to press against the surface of the Earth with the whole weight of the above mentioned thousand parts; the pressure of the bottom of the second against the top of the first to be 1000 - 1 = 999. of the third against the second to be 1000 - 2 = 998. of the fourth against the third to be 1000 - 3 = 997. of the uppermost against the 999. or that next below it, to be 1000 - 999 = 1. so that the extension of the lowermost next the Earth, will be to the extension of the next below the uppermost, as 1. to 999. for as the pressure sustained by the 999. is to the pressure sustain'd by the first, so is the extension of the first to the extension of the 999.

so that, from this hypothetical calculation, we shall find the Air to be indefinitely extended: For if we suppose the whole thickness of the Air to be divided, as I just now instanced, into a thousand parts, and each of those under differing Dimensions, or Alt.i.tudes, to contain an equall quant.i.ty of Air, we shall find, that the first _Cylinder_, whose Base is supposed to lean on the Earth, will be found to be extended 35-35/999 foot; the second equal Division, or _Cylinder_, whose _basis_ is supposed to lean on the top of the first, shall have its top extended higher by 35-70/998 the third 35-105/997 the fourth 35-140/996 and so onward, each equal quant.i.ty of Air having its dimensions measured by 35. and some additional number exprest alwayes in the manner of a fraction, whose numerator is alway the number of the place multipli'd by 35. and whose denominator is alwayes the pressure of the _Atmosphere_ sustain'd by that part, so that by this means we may easily calculate the height of 999. divisions of those 1000. divisions, I suppos'd; whereas the uppermost may extend it self more then as high again, nay, perhaps indefinitely, or beyond the Moon; for the Elaters and Expansions being in reciprocal proportions, since we cannot yet find the _plus ultra_, beyond which the Air will not expand it self, we cannot determine the height of the Air: for since, as we have shewn, the proportion will be alway as the pressure sustain'd by any part is to 35. so 1000. to the expansion of that part; the multiplication or product therefore of the pressure, and expansion, that is, of the two extream proportionals, being alwayes equal to the product of the means, or 35000.

it follows, since that Rectangle or Product may be made up of the multiplication of infinite diversities of numbers, that the height of the Air is also indefinite; for since (as far as I have yet been able to try) the Air seems capable of an indefinite Expansion, the pressure may be decreased in _infinitum_, and consequently its expansion upwards indefinite also.

There being therefore such a difference of density, and no Experiment yet known to prove a _Saltus_, or skipping from one degree of rarity to another much differing from it, that is, that an upper part of the Air should so much differ from that immediately _subjacent_ to it, as to make a distinct superficies, such as we observe between the Air and Water, &c. But it being more likely, that there is a continual increase of rarity in the parts of the Air, the further they are removed from the surface of the Earth: It will hence necessarily follow, that (as in the Experiment of the salt and fresh Water) the ray of Light pa.s.sing obliquely through the Air also, which is of very different density, will be continually, and infinitely inflected, or bended, from a streight, or direct motion.

This granted, the reason of all the above recited _Phaenomena_, concerning the appearance of the Celestial Bodies, will very easily be deduced. As,

First, The redness of the Sun, Moon, and Stars, will be found to be caused by the inflection of the rays within the _Atmosphere_. That it is not really in or near the luminous bodies, will, I suppose, be very easily granted, seeing that this redness is observable in several places differing in Longitude, to be at the same time different, the setting and rising Sun of all parts being for the most part red:

And secondly, That it is not meerly the colour of the Air interpos'd, will, I suppose, without much more difficulty be yielded, seeing that we may observe a very great _interst.i.tium_ of Air betwixt the Object, and the Eye, makes it appear of a dead blew, far enough differing from a red, or yellow.

But thirdly, That it proceeds from the refraction, or inflection, of the rays by the _Atmosphere_, this following Experiment will, I suppose, sufficiently manifest.

Take a sphaerical Crystalline Viol, such as is describ'd in the fifth Figure ABCD, and, having fill'd it with pure clear Water, expose it to the Sun beams; then taking a piece of very fine _Venice_ Paper, apply it against that side of the Globe that is opposite to the Sun, as against the side BC, and you shall perceive a bright red Ring to appear, caus'd by the refraction of the Rays, AAAA, which is made by the Globe; in which Experiment, if the Gla.s.s and Water be very cleer, so that there be no Sands nor bubbles in the Gla.s.s, nor dirt in the Water, you shall not perceive any appearance of any other colour. To apply which Experiment, we may imagine the _Atmosphere_ to be a great transparent Globe, which being of a substance more dense then the other, or (which comes to the same) that has its parts more dense towards the middle, the Sun beams that are tangents, or next within the tangents of this Globe, will be refracted or inflected from their direct pa.s.sage towards the center of the Globe, whence, according to the laws of refractions made in a triangular _Prism_, and the generation of colour set down in the description of Muscovi-gla.s.s there must necessarily appear a red colour in the _transitus_ or pa.s.sage of those tangent Rays. To make this more plain, we will suppose (in the sixth _Figure_) ABCD, to represent the Globe of the _Atmosphere_, EFGH to represent the opacous Globe of the Earth, lying in the midst of it, neer to which, the parts of the Air, sustaining a very great pressure, are thereby very much condens'd, from whence those Rays that are by inflection made tangents to the Globe of the Earth, and those without them, that pa.s.s through the more condens'd part of the _Atmosphere_, as suppose between A and E, are by reason of the inequality of the _medium_, inflected towards the center, whereby there must necessarily be generated a red colour, as is more plainly shewn in the former cited place; hence whatsoever opacous bodies (as vapours, or the like) shall chance to be elevated into those parts, will reflect a red towards the eye; and therefore those evenings and mornings appear reddest, that have the most store of vapours and halituous substances exhaled to a convenient distance from the Earth; for thereby the inflection is made the greater, and thereby the colour also the more intense; and several of those exhalations being opacous, reflect several of those Rays, which, through an _h.o.m.ogeneous_ transparent _medium_ would pa.s.s unseen; and therefore we see, that when there chances to be any clouds situated in those Regions they reflect a strong and vivid red. Now, though one great cause of the redness may be this inflection, yet I cannot wholly exclude the colour of the vapours themselves, which may have something of redness in them, they being partly nitrous; and partly fuliginous; both which steams tinge the Rays that pa.s.s through them, as is made evident by looking at bodies through the fumes of _Aqua fortis_ or spirit of _Nitre_ [as the newly mentioned Ill.u.s.trious Person has demonstrated] and also through the smoak of a Fire or Chimney.

Having therefore made it probable at least, that the morning and evening redness may partly proceed from this inflection or refraction of the Rays, we shall next shew how the Oval Figure will be likewise easily deduced.

Suppose we therefore, EFGH in the sixth _Figure_ of the 37. _Scheme_, to represent the Earth; ABCD, the _Atmosphere_; EI, and EL, two Rays coming from the Sun, the one from the upper, the other from the neather Limb, these Rays, being by the _Atmosphere_ inflected, appear to the eye at E, as if they had come from the points, N and O; and because the Ray L has a greater inclination upon the inequality of the _Atmosphere_ then I, therefore must it suffer a greater inflection, and consequently be further elevated above its true place, then the Ray I, which has a less inclination, will be elevated above its true place; whence it will follow, that the lower side appearing neerer the upper then really it is, and the two _lateral_ sides, _viz._ the right and left side, suffering no sensible alteration from the inflection, at least what it does suffer, does rather increase the visible Diameter then diminish it, as I shall shew by and by, the Figure of the luminous body must necessarily appear somewhat _Elliptical_.

This will be more plain, if in the seventh _Figure_ of the 37. _Scheme_ we suppose AB to represent the sensible Horizon; CDEF, the body of the Sun really below it; GHIK, the same appearing above it, elevated by the inflection of the _Atmosphere_: For if, according to the best observation, we make the visible Diameter of the Sun to be about three or four and thirty minutes, and the Horizontal refraction according to _Ticho_ be thereabout, or somewhat more, the lower limb of the Sun E, will be elevated to I; but because, by his account, the point C will be elevated but 29.

minutes, as having not so great an inclination upon the inequality of the Air, therefore IG, which will be the apparent refracted perpendicular Diameter of the Sun, will be less then CG, which is but 29. minutes, and consequently six or seven minutes shorter then the unrefracted apparent Diameter. The parts, D and F, will be likewise elevated to H and K, whose refraction, by reason of its inclination, will be bigger then that of the point C, though less then that of E; therefore will the semidiameter IL, be shorter then LG, and consequently the under side of the appearing Sun more flat then the upper.

Now, because the Rays from the right and left sides of the Sun, &c. have been observ'd by _Ricciolo_ and _Grimaldus_, to appear more distant one from another then really they are, though (by very many Observations that I have made for that purpose, with a very good _Telescope_, fitted with a divided Ruler) I could never perceive any great alteration, yet there being really some, it will not be amiss, to shew that this also proceeds from the refraction or inflection of the _Atmosphere_; and this will be manifest, if we consider the _Atmosphere_ as a transparent Globe, or at least a transparent sh.e.l.l, encompa.s.sing an opacous Globe, which, being more dense then the _medium_ encompa.s.sing it, refracts or inflects all the entring parallel Rays into a point or focus, so that wheresoever the Observator is plac'd within the _Atmosphere_, between the focus and the luminous body, the _lateral_ Rays must necessarily be more converg'd towards his eye by the refraction or inflection, then they would have been without it; and therefore the Horizontal Diameter of the luminous body must necessarily be augmented.

This might be more plainly manifest to the eye by the sixth _Figure_; but because it would be somwhat tedious, and the thing being obvious enough to be imagin'd by any one that attentively considers it, I shall rather omit it, and proceed to shew, that the ma.s.s of Air neer the surface of the Earth, consists, or is made up, of parcels, which do very much differ from one another in point of density and rarity; and consequently the Rays of light that pa.s.s through them will be variously inflected, here one way, and there another, according as they pa.s.s so or so through those differing parts; and those parts being always in motion, either upwards or downwards, or to the right or left, or in some way compounded of these, they do by this their motion inflect the Rays, now this way, and presently that way.

This irregular, unequal and unconstant inflection of the Rays of light, is the reason why the limb of the _Sun_, _Moon_, _Jupiter_, _Saturn_, _Mars_, and _Venus_, appear to wave or dance; and why the body of the Starrs appear to tremulate or twinkle, their bodies, by this means, being sometimes magnify'd, and sometimes diminished; sometimes elevated, otherwhiles depress'd; now thrown to the right hand, and then to the left.

And that there is such a property or unequal distribution of parts, is manifest from the various degrees of heat and cold that are found in the Air; from whence will follow a differing density and rarity, both as to quant.i.ty and refraction; and likewise from the vapours that are interpos'd, (which, by the way, I imagine, as to refraction or inflection, to do the same thing, as if they were rarify'd Air; and that those vapours that ascend, are both lighter, and less dense, then the ambient Air which boys them up; and that those which descend, are heavier and more dense) The first of these may be found true, if you take a good thick piece of Gla.s.s, and heating it pretty hot in the fire, lay it upon such another piece of Gla.s.s, or hang it in the open Air by a piece of Wire, then looking upon some far distant Object (such as a Steeple or Tree) so as the Rays from that Object pa.s.s directly over the Gla.s.s before they enter your eye, you shall find such a tremulation and wavering of the remote Object, as will very much offend your eye: The like tremulous motion you may observe to be caus'd by the ascending steams of Water, and the like. Now, from the first of these it is manifest, that from the rarifaction of the parts of the Air, by heat, there is caus'd a differing refraction, and from the ascension of the more rarify'd parts of the Air, which are thrust up by the colder, and therefore more condens'd and heavie, is caus'd an undulation or wavering of the Object; for I think, that there are very few will grant, that Gla.s.s, by as gentle a heat as may be endur'd by ones hand, should send forth any of its parts in steams or vapours, which does not seem to be much wasted by that violent fire of the green Gla.s.s-house; but, if yet it be doubted, let Experiment be further made with that body that is accounted, by Chymists and others, the most ponderous and fix'd in the world; for by heating of a piece of Gold, and proceeding in the same manner, you may find the same effects.

This trembling and shaking of the Rays, is more sensibly caus'd by an actual flame, or quick fire, or anything else heated glowing hot; as by a Candle, live Coal, red-hot Iron, or a piece of Silver, and the like: the same also appears very conspicuous, if you look at an Object betwixt which and your eye, the rising smoak of some Chimney is interpos'd; which brings into my mind what I had once the opportunity to observe, which was, the Sun rising to my eye just over a Chimney that sent forth a copious steam of smoak; and taking a short _Telescope_, which I had then by me, I observ'd the body of the Sun, though it was but just peep'd above the Horizon, to have its underside, not onely flatted, and press'd inward, as it usually is when neer the Earth; but to appear more protuberant downwards then if it had suffered no refraction at all; and besides all this, the whole body of the Sun appear'd to tremble or dance, and the edges or limb to be very ragged or indented, undulating or waving, much in the manner of a flag in the Wind.

This I have likewise often observ'd in a hot Suns.h.i.+ny Summer's day, that looking on an Object over a hot stone, or dry hot earth, I have found the Object to be undulated or shaken, much after the same manner. And if you look upon any remote Object through a _Telescope_ (in a hot Summer's day especially) you shall find it likewise to appear tremulous. And further, if there chance to blow any wind, or that the air between you and the Object be in a motion or current, whereby the parts of it, both rarify'd and condens'd, are swiftly remov'd towards the right or left, if then you observe the Horizontal ridge of a Hill far distant, through a very good _Telescope_, you shall find it to wave much like the Sea, and those waves will appear to pa.s.s the same way with the wind.

From which, and many other Experiments, 'tis cleer that the lower Region of the Air, especially that part of it which lieth neerest to the Earth, has, for the most part, its const.i.tuent parcels variously agitated, either by heat or winds, by the first of which, some of them are made more rare, and so suffer a less refraction; others are interwoven, either with ascending or descending vapours; the former of which being more light, and so more rarify'd, have likewise a less refraction; the latter being more heavie, and consequently more dense, have a greater.

Now, because that heat and cold are equally diffus'd every way; and that the further it is spread, the weaker it grows; hence it will follow, that the most part of the under Region of the Air will be made up of several kinds of _lentes_, some whereof will have the properties of _Convex_, others of _Concave_ _gla.s.ses_, which, that I may the more intelligibly make out, we will suppose in the eighth _Figure_ of the 37. _Scheme_, that A represents an ascending vapour, which, by reason of its being somewhat _Heterogeneous_ to the ambient Air, is thereby thrust into a kind of Globular form, not any where terminated, but gradually finished, that is, it is most rarify'd in the middle about A. somewhat more condens'd about BB, more then that about CC; yet further, about DD, almost of the same density with the ambient Air about EE;, and lastly, inclosed with the more dense Air FF, so that from A, to FF, there is a continual increase of density. The reason of which will be manifest, if we consider the rising vapour to be much warmer then the ambient heavie Air; for by the coldness of the ambient Air, the sh.e.l.l EE will be more refrigerated then DD, and that then CC, which will be yet more then BB, and that more then A; so that from F to A, there is a continual increase of heat, and consequently of rarity; from whence it will necessarily follow, that the Rays of light will be inflected or refracted in it, in the same manner as they would be in a _Concave-glase_; for the Rays _GKI_, _GKI_ will be inflected by _GKH_, _GKH_, which will easily follow from what I before explained concerning the inflection of the _Atmosphere_.

On the other side, a descending vapour, or any part of the air included by an ascending vapour, will exhibit the same effects with a _Convex lens_; for, if we suppose, in the former Figure, the quite contrary const.i.tution to that last describ'd; that is, the ambient Air FF being hotter then any part of that matter within any circle, therefore the coldest part must necessarily be A, as being farthest remov'd from the heat, all the intermediate s.p.a.ces will be gradually discriminated by the continuall mixture of heat and cold, so that it will be hotter at EE, then DD, in DD then CC, in CC then BB, and in BB then A. From which, a like refraction and condensation will follow, and consequently a lesser or greater refraction, so that every included part will refract more then the including, by which means the Rays, GKI, GKI, coming from a Starr, or some remote Object, are so inflected, that they will again concurr and meet, in the point M. By the interposition therefore of this desending vapour the visible body of the Star, or other Object, is very much augmented, as by the former it was diminished.

From the quick consecutions of these two, one after another, between the Object and your eye, caused by their motion upwards or downwards, proceeding from their levity or gravity, or to the right or left, proceeding from the wind, a Starr may appear, now bigger, now less, then really it would otherwise without them; and this is that property of a Starr, which is commonly call'd twinkling, or scintillation.

The reason why a Star will now appear of one colour, now of another, which for the most part happens when 'tis neer the Horizon, may very easily be deduc'd from its appearing now in the middle of the vapour, other whiles neer the edge; for if you look against the body of a Starr with a _Telescope_ that has a pretty deep _Convex_ Eye-gla.s.s, and so order it, that the Star may appear sometimes in one place, and sometimes in another of it; you may perceive this or that particular colour to be predominant in the apparent Figure of the Starr, according as it is more or less remote from the middle of the _Lens_. This I had here further explain'd, but that it does more properly belong to another place.

I shall therefore onely add some few Queries, which the consideration of these particulars hinted, and so finish this Section.

And the first I shall propound is, Whether there may not be made an artificial transparent body of an exact Globular Figure that shall so inflect or refract all the Rays, that, coming from one point, fall upon any _Hemisphere_ of it; that every one of them may meet on the opposite side, and cross one another exactly in a point; and that it may do the like also with all the Rays that, coming from a _lateral_ point, fall upon any other _Hemisphere_; for if so, there were to be hoped a perfection of _Dioptricks_, and a transmigration into heaven, even whil'st we remain here upon earth in the flesh, and a descending or penetrating into the center and innermost recesses of the earth, and all earthly bodies; nay, it would open not onely a cranney, but a large window (as I may so speak) into the Shop of Nature, whereby we might be enabled to see both the tools and operators, and the very manner of the operation it self of Nature; this, could it be effected, would as farr surpa.s.s all other kind of perspectives as the vast extent of Heaven does the small point of the Earth, which distance it would immediately remove, and unite them, as 'twere, into one, at least, that there should appear no more distance between them then the length of the Tube, into the ends of which these Gla.s.ses should be inserted: Now, whether this may not be effected with parcels of Gla.s.s of several densities, I have sometimes proceeded so farr as to doubt (though in truth, as to the general, I have wholly despair'd of it) for I have often observ'd in Optical Gla.s.ses a very great variety of the parts, which are commonly called Veins; nay, some of them round enough (for they are for the most part, drawn out into firings) to const.i.tute a kind of _lens_.

This I should further proceed to hope, had any one been so inquisitive as to have found out the way of making any transparent body, either more dense or more rare, for then it might be possible to compose a Globule that should be more dense in the middle of it, then in any other part, and to compose the whole bulk, so as that there should be a continual gradual transition from one degree of density to another; such as should be found requisite for the desired inflection of the _transmigrating_ Rays; but of this enough at present, because I may say more of it when I set down my own Trials concerning the melioration of _Dioptricks_, where I shall enumerate with how many several substances I have made both _Microscopes_, and _Telescopes_, and by what and how many, ways: Let such as have leisure and opportunity farther consider it.

The next Quaery shall be, whether by the same collection of a more dense body then the other, or at least, of the denser part of the other, there might not be imagin'd a reason of the apparition of some new fix'd Stars, as those in the Swan, _Ca.s.siope's Charr_, _Serpentarius_, _Piscis_, _Cetus_, &c.

Thirdly, Whether it be possible to define the height of the _Atmosphere_ from this inflection of the Rays, or from the Quicksilver Experiment of the rarifaction or extension of the Air.

Fourthly, Whether the disparity between the upper and under Air be not sometimes so great, as to make a reflecting superficies; I have had several Observations which seem to have proceeded from some such cause, but it would be too long to relate and examine them. An Experiment, also somewhat a.n.a.logous to this, I have made with Salt-water and Fresh, which two liquors, in most Positions, seem'd the same, and not to be separated by any determinate superficies, which separating surface yet in some other Positions did plainly appear.

And if so, Whether the reason of the equal bounding or _terminus_ of the under parts of the clouds may not proceed from this cause; whether, secondly, the Reason of the apparition of many Suns may not be found out, by considering how the Rays of the Sun may so be reflected, as to describe a pretty true Image of the body, as we find them from any regular Superficies. Whether also this may not be found to cause the apparition of some of those _Parelii_, of counterfeit Suns, which appear coloured, by refracting the Rays so, as to make the body of the Sun appear in quite another place then really it is. But of this more elsewhere.

5. Whether the _Phaenomena_ of the Clouds may not be made out by this diversity of density in the upper and under parts of the Air, by supposing the Air above them to be much lighter then they themselves are, and they themselves to be yet lighter then that which is subjacent to them, many of them seeming to be the same substance with the Cobwebs that fly in the Air after a Fog.

Now that such a const.i.tution of the Air and Clouds, if such there be, may be sufficient to perform this effect, may be confirm'd by this Experiment.

Make as strong a Solution of Salt as you are able, then filling a Gla.s.s of some depth half full with it, fill the other half with fresh Water, and poyse a little Gla.s.s-bubble, so as that it may sink pretty quick in fresh Water, which take and put into the aforesaid Gla.s.s, and you shall find it to sink till it comes towards the middle, where it will remain fixt, without moving either upwards or downwards. And by a second Experiment, of poising such a bubble in water, whose upper part is warmer, and consequently lighter, then the under, which is colder and heavier; the manner of which follows in this next Quaery, which is,

6. Whether the rarifaction and condensation of Water be not made after the same manner, as those effects are produc'd in the Air by heat; for I once pois'd a seal'd up Gla.s.s-bubble so exactly, that never so small an addition would make it sink, and as small a detraction make it swim, which suffering to rest in that Vessel of Water for some time, I alwayes found it about noon to be at the bottom of the Water, and at night, and in the morning, at the top: Imagining this to proceed from the Rarifaction of the Water, caus'd by the heat, I made tryal, and found most true; for I was able at any time, either to depress, or raise it, by heat and cold; for if I let the Pipe stand for some time in cold water, I could easily raise the Bubble from the bottom, whither I had a little afore detruded it, by putting the same Pipe into warm Water. And this way I have been able, for a very considerable time, to keep a Bubble so poys'd in the Water, as that it should remain in the middle, and neither sink, nor swim: For gently heating the upper part of the Pipe with a Candle, Coal, or hot Iron, till I perceived the Bubble begin to descend, then forbearing, I have observed it to descend to such or such a station, and there to remain suspended for some hours, till the heat by degrees were quite vanished, when it would again ascend to its former place. This I have also often observed naturally performed by the heat of the Air, which being able to rarifie the upper parts of the Water sooner then the lower, by reason of its immediate contact, the heat of the Air has sometimes so slowly increased, that I have observed the Bubble to be some hours in pa.s.sing between the top and bottom.