The Colonization Of North America Part 2

Free lands were granted to settlers, with a reservation of the precious metals to the crown. Special orders were given for mulberry and silkworm culture. These efforts to promote agriculture in the West Indies, however, were made largely nugatory by commercial restrictions and the superior attractions of the mainland.

Indian policy.--Columbus found Espanola inhabited, it was estimated, by a quarter of a million of Indians, and the other islands similarly populated. He was instructed to treat the natives well and to do all in his power to convert them. The sovereigns frequently repeated these orders, and commanded that the natives be treated as free men and paid for their work. But the shortage of a labor-supply and the relative position of the two races led quickly and almost inevitably to the practical enslavement of the weaker.

Encomiendas.--Following the rebellion of 1495, the subdued natives were put under tribute in the form of specified amounts of products, commutable to labor. In 1497 a practice was begun of allotting lands to Spaniards, the forced labor of the natives going with the land.

Complaint being made by priests and seculars that the Indians could neither be made to work, nor be taught or converted without restraint, in 1503 it was ordered that they should be congregated (_congregados_) in permanent villages and put under protectors (_encomenderos_), who were obliged to teach and protect them, and were empowered to exact their labor, though for pay and as free men. This provision contained the essence of the encomienda system, which was designed to protect and civilize the native, as well as to exploit him. But there was always danger that the former aim would yield to the latter, and, contrary to royal will, the condition of the natives fast became one of practical slavery.

Depopulation of the islands.--Moreover, in a very short time the islands became nearly depopulated of natives. Many were slain in the wars of conquest and during rebellions, or died of starvation while in hiding.

Perhaps a greater number died of smallpox, measles, and other diseases brought from Europe. The result was that by 1514 the native population of Espanola was reduced to 14,000. A similar reduction of native population occurred in the other islands as they were successively occupied.

Indian slavery.--Indian slavery was not generally allowed in theory.

But the Lesser Antilles, the Bahamas, and Florida were found to be inhabited by hostile cannibals, who were regarded as fair prize for enslavement. As early as 1494 Columbus suggested that permission be given to sell Caribs. In 1498 he took a cargo of six hundred of them to Spain. Soon it became an accepted legal principle that cannibals and rebellious Indians could be enslaved. The idea was encouraged by the lack of Spanish laborers, and by the disappearance of the native population of Espanola. Slave-hunting was soon extended, therefore, to the coasts of Florida, Panuco, and other parts of the mainland. The practice was continued, as the frontier advanced, to the eighteenth century when, for example, Apaches of Texas and p.a.w.nees of Kansas were often sold to Work on plantations in Louisiana or Cuba.

Las Casas.--Numerous prominent Spaniards in the Indies early opposed encomiendas on moral grounds. Among them the most aggressive was Father Bartolome de las Casas. He had come to the Indies as a layman, had held an encomienda after becoming a priest, but in 1514 had renounced it. In the following year he went to Spain, secured the appointment of a commission of Geronymite friars to enforce the laws regarding Indians in the islands, and was himself made Protector of the Indians. In 1516 he returned to Espanola, but, being dissatisfied with the work of the commission, he returned to Spain, where he favored negro slavery as a means of sparing the natives. In 1521 he tried to found a Utopian colony on Tierra Firme, to furnish an humane example, but through unfortunate circ.u.mstances it failed completely.

EXPLORATION OF THE MAINLAND COASTS AND THE SEARCH FOR A STRAIT

Voyages toward the South.--The discovery by Columbus (1498) of pearls on the southern mainland, combined with the Portuguese successes in India, gave new incentive to voyages, and within the next few years many thousands of miles of coastline of South and Central America were explored in the interest of trade, discovery, and international rivalry.

In 1499 Ojeda explored from near Paramaribo to the Gulf of Maracaibo. In 1500 Pinzon and DeLepe sailed north to the Pearl Coast from points near 8 and 10 south, respectively, and Bastidas made known the coast from the Gulf of Maracaibo to Nombre de Dios, on the Isthmus of Panama. The chain of discoveries was carried in 1502 from the north sh.o.r.e of Honduras to Nombre de Dios by the fourth voyage of Columbus, made primarily in search of a strait through the troublesome lands which he had discovered. In 1504 La Cosa and Vespucius, during a trading voyage on the Gulf of Uraba, ascended the Atrato River two hundred miles by a route which has since been proposed as an interoceanic ca.n.a.l. Meanwhile numerous other voyages were made to the Pearl Coast for commercial purposes. They added little more to geographical knowledge, but led to colonization on the southern mainland.

Portuguese compet.i.tion.--Spanish efforts to find a pa.s.sage to the Indian Ocean by going to the southward were stimulated by the Portuguese voyages in the same direction. In 1500 Cabral, on his way to India, took possession for Portugal at a point near 18 south lat.i.tude on the Brazilian coast. In the following year a Portuguese expedition, in which Americus Vespucius was pilot, explored the coast from 5 to 32 south lat.i.tude, discovering the La Plata River on the way. It was to this voyage of Vespucius, made in the interest of Portugal, that America owes its name. First applied to South America, it was soon extended to the northern continent. A Portuguese voyage made in 1503 by Jaques, in search of a pa.s.sage to the East, is said to have reached 52 south.

Establishment of the Portuguese Empire in the East.--Gama's voyage was promptly followed by the founding of Portuguese colonies in the East.

The chief actor in this work was Alburquerque, who accompanied an expedition to India in 1503 and became viceroy in 1509, an office which he held until his death in 1515. During his rule the Portuguese established themselves at Goa, which gave them control of the Malabar coast, and at Malacca, from which point they were able to control the trade of the Malay Peninsula and the Spice Islands. Ormuz was captured, making them supreme in the commerce of the Persian Gulf. In succeeding years they acquired Ceylon and established trading settlements in Burma, China, and j.a.pan.

Continued quest for a strait.--These Portuguese successes were an incentive to further Spanish efforts to find the strait. In 1506 Vicente Yanez Pinzon, accompanied by Juan de Solis, in search of a pa.s.sage explored the Gulf of Honduras and eastern Yucatan from Guanaja Islands, the western limit of Columbus's voyage, to the Island of Caria. In 1509 Solis, in the service of Spain, reached 42 south, while in search of the desired route. The discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Balboa in 1513 aroused Spain to renewed efforts to find the strait. Exploration was at once undertaken on the southern sh.o.r.es of Panama, and in 1515 Solis again was sent down the Brazilian coast. Reaching the La Plata River, he was killed and eaten by the savages.

Magellan and Elcano.--The solution of the problem of the southern strait was left for Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese who had seen service in the Far East. Returning to Portugal, he proposed to the king the opening of a route to the East by going west. His offer being refused, like Columbus he turned to Spain, where his plan found favor. Sailing with five vessels in 1519, he discovered the Straits of Magellan and crossed the Pacific Ocean to the Philippines, where he was killed in 1521. Part of the crew, led by Elcano, continued round the world and reached Spain in September, 1522, after one of the most remarkable voyages in all history.

The mapping of the Gulf coast.--Meanwhile the outlines of the Gulf of Mexico had been made known, and by 1525 the continued search for the strait and efforts to settle on the mainland had carried Spanish, explorers nearly the whole length of the North Atlantic coast. In 1508 Ocampo had circ.u.mnavigated Cuba. Sailing from Porto Rico in 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon, who was interested in slave-hunting and exploration, discovered and coasted the Peninsula of Florida.

Four years later Cordova, under a license from Velasquez, governor of Cuba, explored Yucatan, finding signs of large cities and of wealth. The reports aroused new interest in the mainland, and Velasquez sent out Grijalva, who coasted the sh.o.r.e from Yucatan to Panuco River, securing on the way twenty thousand dollars' worth of gold. To take advantage of Grijalva's discoveries, Velasquez organized another expedition and put it in charge of Hernando Cortes. Garay, governor of Jamaica, also sent out an expedition, under Pineda, with instructions to seek new lands and look for a strait. Sailing north to the mainland in 1519, Pineda completed the mapping of the Gulf by coasting from Florida to Vera Cruz and back. On the way west he discovered the Mississippi River, which he called Rio del Espiritu Santo. On the strength of Pineda's discoveries, Garay now secured a patent to the northern Gulf sh.o.r.e, and undertook to colonize the province of Amichel.

The North Atlantic coast.--The exploration of the North Atlantic coast soon followed. In 1513 De Leon had rounded the Peninsula of Florida.

Eight years later Gordillo, sailing from Espanola in the employ of Ayllon, and Quexos, a slave hunter whom Gordillo met on the way, reached the mainland at 33 30', near Cape Fear in a region called Chicora.

Ayllon in 1523 secured a patent authorizing him to seek a strait in the north and found a colony. In Ayllon's employ, Quexos in 1525 coasted north perhaps to 40. In the same year Stephen Gomez, under contract to seek a northern strait, descended the coast from Nova Scotia to Florida.

Over the northern part of his route he had been preceded by the English explorer John Cabot (1497). With the return of Gomez the entire Atlantic sh.o.r.e from the Straits of Magellan to Nova Scotia had been explored by expeditions made in the name of Spain.

THE MAYAS AND THE NAHUAS

A Double Movement.--Having subdued the islands and run the eastern coastline, the Spaniards proceeded to take possession of the mainland.

To the southward they were attracted by trade, rumors of gold, and the hope of finding a strait leading to the East. To the westward they were drawn by the semi-civilized Nahuas and Mayas, who lived in substantial towns, possessed acc.u.mulated wealth, had a stable population used to hard labor, and were worth exploiting. The advance into the interior was a double movement, one proceeding north from a base on the Isthmus of Panama, the other radiating in all directions from the Valley of Mexico.

Two Civilizations.--The Nahuas occupied Mexico south of a line drawn roughly from Tampico through Guadalajara to the Pacific Ocean. The Mayas lived princ.i.p.ally in Yucatan and Guatemala. The Nahuas had acquired much of their culture from the Mayas, and the cultural areas overlapped.

These peoples had several features in common. They lived in substantial pueblos, or towns, and practiced agriculture by means of irrigation, raising extensively maize, beans, potatoes, and tobacco. Maguey was a staple crop in the Valley of Mexico and henequen in Yucatan. Mayas and Nahuas both lacked important domestic animals. They were dominated by a powerful priesthood and practiced slavery and human sacrifice.

Maya Characteristics.--Certain features distinguished the two civilizations. The Mayas had imposing architectural structures devoted to religion, notably at Palenque, Uxmal, and Chichen Itza. They had made considerable advance toward written records in the form of ideograms.

More than 1500 Maya ma.n.u.scripts, written on henequen, have been preserved but are as yet in the main undeciphered.

The Nahuas.--The Nahuas had made remarkable progress in astronomical calculations, and their wors.h.i.+p was closely connected with the planetary system. The most notable religious monuments were the pyramids which are widely scattered over the country. Some of these, it is believed, are of Maya origin. Calendars of great perfection had been devised, the famous Calendar Stone now preserved in the National Museum at Mexico being one of the rare treasures of archaeology. The Nahuas had achieved a more highly developed agriculture than the Mayas, had a stronger military and political organization, and larger and better constructed towns. Of these the most notable was Mexico (Tenocht.i.tlan). It was built in a lake in the center of the great valley of Anahuac, and had a population of perhaps 60,000 when the Spaniards came.

Nahua History.--The Nahuas had come from the north about the time when the Germanic tribes were overrunning southern Europe. According to their own traditions the first Nahua tribe, the Toltecs, entered the Valley of Mexico in 596 A.D., and were overpowered by the barbarians whom they found there, but civilized them. In succeeding centuries they were followed by other Nahua tribes, whose names are now borne by numerous cities in the Valley of Mexico. Among the late comers were the Aztecs, who, according to tradition, founded their lake-city in 1325 A.D. Their military stronghold was the crag of Chapultepec, where the presidential mansion of Mexico now stands.

The Triple Alliance.--Among the numerous cities or pueblos built by these struggling tribes four emerged into prominence. First Atzcapotzalco, then Tezcuco, then Mexico acquired supremacy. Placing itself at the head of a triple alliance (Mexico, Tezcuco, and Tacuba), Mexico in the fifteenth century engaged in a series of conquests which carried the Aztec power to the Gulf of Mexico, to the Pacific Ocean, and well into the Maya regions of Central America. War became a national impulse, closely identified with the religion of which human sacrifice was a central feature. The "empire" was but a military overlords.h.i.+p, however, and had for its chief objects tribute and human beings for sacrifice.

The hegemony was not secure, nor did it embrace all of the semi-civilized peoples. The Tarascans and other tribes to the west had resisted its power, and shortly before the advent of the Spaniards the Tlascalans to the east had defeated the Aztecs in battle. At the coming of the Europeans the "empire" was losing its hold. The subject peoples were becoming more restless under the burden of tribute; and the ruler, Montezuma II, was a superst.i.tious fatalist. The Spanish conquerors arrived at the opportune moment for success.

THE CONQUEST OF CENTRAL AMERICA

Castilla del Oro.--At the same time that the islands other than Espanola were being occupied, beginnings of settlement were made in Central America. In 1503 Christopher Columbus had attempted to establish a colony on the Veragua coast, but had failed. After several successful trading voyages had been made, however, two colonies were planned for the southern mainland. Ojeda received a grant called Uraba, east of the Gulf of Darien, and Nicuesa obtained a grant called Veragua, lying west of that Gulf. Ojeda founded a colony at San Sebastian (1509), which was shortly afterward moved to Darien, where Vasco Nunez de Balboa soon became the leading figure and governor _ad interim_ (1511). Nicuesa's colony was founded at Nombre de Dios (1510), but it did not flourish.

The Darien region became known as Nueva Andalucia, and in 1513 the whole southern mainland, excepting Veragua, Honduras and Yucatan, to the west and Paria, to the east, was reorganized into one grand jurisdiction called Castilla del Oro, and made independent of Espanola.

Balboa.--Hearing of gold and a sea toward the south, Balboa led a band of men in 1513 across the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific Ocean. The discovery was an important factor in leading to Magellan's great voyage, already recounted, and it set in motion a wave of explorations both up and down the Pacific coast, and led to the conquest of Peru. Balboa had made enemies, and he fell under the suspicion of the new governor of Castilla del Oro, Pedrarias de avila, who arrived at Darien in 1514 with a colony of fifteen hundred persons; but a conciliation occurred, and in 1515 Balboa was made Adelantado of the Island of Coiba, in the South Sea. To explore that water he built vessels on the north coast and had them transported across the Isthmus on the backs of Indians. The vessels proved unseaworthy, and while Balboa was building two more at the Isle of Pearls, he was summoned by Pedrarias, charged with treason, and beheaded (1519).

Exploration on the South Sea.--Balboa was succeeded by Espinosa in charge of the southern coast. He at once began plundering raids westward by land, seeking gold and slaves. The South Sea now became the chief center of interest, and, to provide a better base, in 1519 Pedrarias founded Panama, moved his capital thither, refounded Nombre de Dios, and opened a road across the Isthmus between the two places.

Rapidly now the conquerors and explorers, under Pedrarias, pushed their way westward, by water and by land. With two of the vessels built by Balboa, in 1519 Espinosa sent an expedition under Castaneda which reached the Gulf of Nicoya, some five hundred miles from Panama. In 1522 Andres Nino and Gil Gonzalez Davila fitted out a joint expedition, planning to sail west one thousand leagues, to seek spices, gold, and silver. After sailing one hundred leagues westward, Gonzalez proceeded west by land, while Nino continued with the fleet. Gonzalez reached and conquered the country bordering on the Gulf of Nicoya and Lake Nicaragua, places so named from local chieftains. Nino sailed west to Fonseca Bay, thus coasting the entire length of Nicaragua. When the commanders returned to Panama they reported thirty-two thousand baptisms, and presents in gold and pearls worth more than $112,000.

[Ill.u.s.tration: The Development of Central America, 1509-1543.]

The Conquest of Costa Rica and Nicaragua.--These profitable explorations stimulated renewed interest, and were followed by conquest and settlement in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Gonzalez desired to return at once to occupy the country which he had explored, and, meeting hindrance from Pedrarias, he went to Espanola to organize another expedition, while awaiting royal consent. Meanwhile Pedrarias set about conquering Nicaragua for himself. With funds borrowed from Francisco Pizarro and others, he equipped a small expedition and sent it under Francisco Hernandez de Cordova. One of the commanders was Hernando de Soto, who later became famous in Peru and Florida. Proceeding westward, in 1524 Cordova founded Bruselas, on the Gulf of Nicoya, and parceled out the natives among the settlers. Continuing into Nicaragua, he founded the cities of Leon and Granada. In the struggle which followed, Bruselas was abandoned and the settlement of Costa Rica proceeded slowly.

Gonzalez in 1524, having secured royal permission, entered Honduras from the northeast, with an expedition destined for Nicaragua. De Soto, sent against him by Cordova, was easily subdued, but Gonzalez was defeated by the agents of Cortes, who was now engaged in the conquest of Mexico. In Nicaragua Cordova revolted against Pedrarias and was executed. In 1527 Pedrarias became governor of Nicaragua, where he ruled till 1531. During all these wranglings the Indians were the chief sufferers. They were granted in encomienda, employed as beasts of burden, or branded and sold as slaves in Panama, Peru, or the West Indies.

Guatemala, San Salvador, and Honduras.--Meanwhile the north-moving conquerors who went out from Panama had met and struggled in Guatemala, San Salvador, and Honduras with the companions of Cortes, moving southward from Mexico. The history of the conquest of these disputed regions, therefore, becomes a part of the story of the exploits of Cortes and his lieutenants, recounted below.

Exploration of San Juan River.--One of the acts which relieve the b.l.o.o.d.y story of the career of Pedrarias was the sending in 1529 of an expedition under Estete to find the outlet to Lake Nicaragua. Estete descended the San Juan River until a glimpse was had of the sea, but hostile Indians prevented him from reaching it. It was believed that the lake and river drained a country rich with gold, and explorations continued. In 1536 the San Juan, with tributary branches, was explored by Alonso Carrero and Diego Machuco, under orders from the new governor of Nicaragua. Soon the lake and river became the princ.i.p.al highway from Nicaragua to the Atlantic Ocean, and to the Porto Bello fairs.

The Dukedom of Veragua.--It was a long time after Nicuesa's failure in 1510 before another attempt was made to settle Veragua, one reason being that the region was tenaciously claimed by the heirs of Columbus. In 1535 Alonso Gutierrez was made governor of Veragua, as agent of the widow of Diego Columbus, but misfortune attended his efforts to found a colony. Shortly afterward (1537) the discoverer's grandson, Luis, was made Duke of Veragua; several attempts to colonize it failed, however, and in 1556 the region was surrendered for a small pension.

Continued struggle in Central America.--These conquests were but the beginning of a long struggle of the Spaniards with the natives in Central America. The first stages of the conquest were over by the middle of the sixteenth century, but many parts of the country were still unconquered at the end of the seventeenth. Some tribes, indeed, are unsubdued and uncivilized to this day.

THE CONQUEST OF THE VALLEY OF MEXICO

The revolt of Cortes.--In the very year of the founding of Panama Hernando Cortes entered Mexico. The return of the expeditions of Cordova and Grijalva to the Mexican coast had caused excitement in Cuba.

Governor Velasquez prepared an expedition to follow them up, and appointed Cortes to lead it. Becoming distrustful of his lieutenant, Velasquez sent messengers to recall him, but Cortes set forth, nevertheless. In defiance of the governor, on February 18, 1519, he left Cuba, a rebel, with eleven vessels, some six hundred men, and sixteen horses. Proceeding to Tabasco and up the coast, he founded Vera Cruz, by whose _cabildo_ he was chosen captain-general and _justicia mayor_, and his position was thus given the color of legality. By this act Cortes placed himself under the immediate protection of the king.

The march to Mexico.--On the way and while at Vera Cruz Cortes had learned that the Aztec "empire" was honeycombed with dissension, and that the subject peoples were burdened with tribute and filled with hatred for Montezuma, the native ruler at the city of Mexico. He therefore a.s.sumed the role of deliverer, and the Indians rallied to his standard. At Cempoalla he connived at a revolt against Montezuma's tax gatherers. Scuttling his s.h.i.+ps and thus cutting off all chance for retreat, in August he set out for Mexico. His march was a succession of audacious deeds. At Cempoalla he threw down heathen idols and imprisoned the chiefs. At Tlascala he was attacked by several thousand warriors, but his genius changed them into allies in his train. At Cholula, discovering a conspiracy, he raked the streets with cannon shot and burned the leaders at the stake. In triumph he entered the great pueblo of Tenocht.i.tlan or Mexico. While lodged as a guest of Montezuma in the center of the city, he seized the Aztec ruler and held him prisoner.

The loss and recapture of the city.--In the spring of 1520 Cortes learned that Panfilo de Narvaez had arrived at Vera Cruz with nearly a thousand men, under orders from Velasquez to arrest him. Leaving Pedro de Alvarado in charge, he hastened to the coast, won over most of Narvaez's men, and then hurried back to Mexico. During his absence the Aztecs had revolted, through the rashness of Alvarado. Soon after the return of Cortes the natives rose again, killed Montezuma, and replaced him by Cuauhtemoc, a more vigorous leader. Cortes now sought safety in flight, but during the night retreat he lost more than half his men.

This "unfortunate night" became known as "Noche Triste." But the defeat was only temporary. Raising new allies, Cortes conquered the towns round about Mexico, built a fleet at Tlascala, launched it on Lake Tezcuco, besieged the city, and by a combined attack, by land and water, on August 13, 1521, he recaptured Mexico, the most important native town in all America.

Cortes's contest with Velasquez.--Knowing that Velasquez would oppose him, Cortes, while at Vera Cruz in 1519, had at once sent agents, bearing rich presents, to represent him at the court of Charles V. Then began a three-year contest with the agents of the Cuban governor. The delay was fortunate for Cortes, for in the course of it he won favor by his remarkable feats of conquest. Through the influence of Fonseca, Velasquez secured the appointment of Cristobal de Tapia, an official of Espanola, as governor of New Spain, to take charge of the government and investigate Cortes. But Cortes got rid of him as he had disposed of Narvaez. Arriving at Vera Cruz in December, 1521, Tapia was met by a council of delegates from the conqueror and practically driven from the country, on the ground that new orders were expected from the king.

Cortes made Governor and Captain-General.--Before this Cortes had sent Avila to the Audiencia of Santo Domingo to obtain its favor. Scarcely had Tapia been ejected when Avila returned with tentative authority for Cortes, subject to royal approval, to continue his conquests and to grant encomiendas. This greatly strengthened Cortes's position. Having succeeded so well in Espanola, Avila was now sent to Spain. Here he triumphed also, for on October 15, 1522, the emperor approved the acts of Cortes and made him governor and captain-general of New Spain. The victory of Cortes was as complete as the discomfiture of Velasquez and Fonseca.