Principles of Orchestration Part 4

Natural sounds are given in white notes. The upper lines indicate the scope of greatest expression.

[Footnote A: The 7th natural harmonic is everywhere omitted as useless; the same in the horns, the notes 11, 13, 14 and 15.]

[Footnote B: The _b[natural]_ of the octave -1 does not exist on the trombones.]

The group of bra.s.s instruments, though uniform in resonance throughout its const.i.tuent parts, is not so well adapted to expressive playing (in the exact sense of the word) as the wood-wind group. Nevertheless, a scope of greatest expression may be distinguished in the middle registers. In company with the piccolo and double ba.s.soon it is not given to the small trumpet (_E[flat]-D_) and tuba to play with any great amount of expression. The rapid and rhythmical repet.i.tion of a note by single tonguing is possible to all members of the bra.s.s, but double tonguing can only be done on instruments with a small mouth-piece, trumpets and cornets. These two instruments can execute rapid _tremolando_ without difficulty. The remarks on breathing, in the section devoted to the wood-wind, apply with equal force to the bra.s.s.

The use of stopped notes and mutes alters the character of bra.s.s tone.

Stopped notes can only be employed on trumpets, cornets and horns; the shape of trombones and tubas prevents the hand from being inserted into the bell. Though mutes are applied indiscriminately to all bra.s.s instruments in the orchestra, tubas rarely possess them. Stopped and muted notes are similar in quality. On the trumpet, muting a note produces a better tone than stopping it.

In the horn both methods are employed; single notes are stopped in short phrases, muted in longer ones. I do not propose to describe the difference between the two operations in detail, and will leave the reader to acquire the knowledge for himself, and to form an opinion as to its importance from his own personal observation. Sufficient to say that the tone is deadened by both methods, a.s.suming a wild "crackling"

character in _forte_ pa.s.sages, tender and dull in _piano_. Resonance is greatly reduced, the silvery tone of the instrument so lost and a timbre resembling that of the oboe and Eng. horn is approached.

Stopped notes (_con sordino_) are marked [music symbol: mute]

underneath the note, sometimes followed by [music symbol: no mute], denoting the resumption of open sounds, _senza sordini_. Bra.s.s instruments, when muted, produce an effect of distance.

C. Instruments of little sustaining power.

Plucked strings.

When the usual orchestral string quartet (Vns I, Vns II, Violas, 'Cellos, D. ba.s.ses) does not make use of the bow, but plucks the strings with the finger, it becomes to my mind a new and independent group with its own particular quality of tone. a.s.sociated with the harp, which produces sound in a similar manner, I consider it separately under the heading of plucked strings.

_Note._ In this group may be cla.s.sed the guitar, zither, balalaka; instruments plucked with a quill, such as the domra,[9] the mandoline etc., all of which may be used in an orchestra, but have no place in the scope of the present book.

[Footnote 9: A Russian instrument which, like the balalaka, is better known abroad. (Translator's note.)]

Pizzicato.

Although capable of every degree of power from _ff_ to _pp_, _pizzicato_ playing has but small range of expression, and is used chiefly as a colour effect. On open strings it is resonant and heavy, on stopped strings shorter and duller; in the high positions it is rather dry and hard.

Table D on page 31 indicates the range in which _pizzicato_ may be used on each stringed instrument.

In the orchestra, _pizzicato_ comes into operation in two distinct ways: a) on single notes, b) on double notes and chords. The fingers of the right hand playing _pizz._ are far less agile than the bow; _pizz._ pa.s.sages therefore can never be performed as quickly as those played _arco_. Moreover, the speed of _pizzicato_ playing depends upon the thickness of the strings; on the double ba.s.ses, for instance, it must always be much slower than on the violins.

In _pizzicato_ chords it is better to avoid open strings, which produce a more brilliant tone than of covered strings. Chords of four notes allow of greater freedom and vigour of attack, as there is no danger of accidentally touching a wrong note. Natural harmonics played _pizz._ create a charming effect; the tone is weak however, and they are chiefly successful on the violoncello.

Harp.

In the orchestra, the harp is almost entirely an harmonic or accompanying instrument. The majority of scores require only one harp part, but in recent times composers have written for two or even three harps, which are sometimes compressed into the one part.

_Note._ Full orchestras should include three or even four harps. My operas _Sadko_, _The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitesh_, and _The Golden c.o.c.kerel_ are designed for two harps, _Mlada_ for three.

The special function of the harp lies in the execution of chords, and the florid figures springing from them. As only four notes at the most can be played by each hand, the notes of a chord should be written close together, with not too great a s.p.a.ce between one hand and the other. The chords must always be broken (_arpeggiato_); should the composer wish otherwise he should notify it (_non arpeggiato_). In the middle and lower octaves the resonance of the strings is slightly prolonged, and dies away gradually. In changes of harmony the player stops the vibration of the strings with his hands, but, in quick modulations, this method is not feasible, and the mixture of one chord with another produces a discordant effect. It follows that more or less rapid figures can only be realised clearly and neatly in the upper register of the harp, where the strings are shorter and harder in tone.

As a general rule, in the whole range of the harp:

[Music: C1[flat]-F7[sharp]]

only the notes of the first to the fourth octave are used; the extreme notes in both compa.s.ses may be employed in special circ.u.mstances, and for doubling in octaves.

The harp is essentially a diatonic instrument, since all chromatic pa.s.sages depend on the manipulation of the pedals. For this reason the harp does not lend itself to rapid modulation, and the orchestrator is advised to bear this fact in mind. But the difficulty may be obviated by using two harps alternately.[10]

[Footnote 10: A chromatic harp without pedals has now been invented in France (Lyon's system), on which the most abrupt modulations are possible. (Translator's note.)]

_Note._ I would remind the reader that the harp is not capable of double sharps or double flats. For this reason, certain modulations from one key to another one, adjacent to it can only be accomplished enharmonically. For instance, the transition from _C_ flat, _G_ flat or _D_ flat, major to their minor subdominant chords or keys is not possible owing to double flats. It is therefore necessary to start enharmonically from the keys of _B_, _F_ sharp or _C_ sharp, major. Similarly, on account of double sharps, it is impossible to change from _A_ sharp, _D_ sharp or _G_ sharp, minor to their respective dominant major chords or keys; _B_ flat, _E_ flat and _A_ flat, minor must be the starting-points.

The technical operation known as _glissando_ is peculiar to the harp alone. Taking for granted that the reader is conversant with the methods of acquiring different scales by means of double-notched pedals, it will be sufficient to remark that _glissando_ scales produce a discordant medley of sound owing to the length of time the strings continue to vibrate, and therefore, as a _purely musical_ effect, _glissando_ can only be used in the upper octaves, quite _piano_, where the sound of the strings is sufficiently clear, yet not too prolonged. _Forte glissando_ scales, entailing the use of the lower and middle strings are only permissible as embellishments.

Glissando pa.s.sages in chords of the seventh and ninth, enharmonically obtained, are much more common, and as the above reservations do not apply, every dynamic shade of tone is possible. Chords in harmonics can only consist of three notes written close together, two for the left hand and one for the right.

The tender poetic quality of the harp is adapted to every dynamic shade, but it is never a very powerful instrument, and the orchestrator should treat it with respect.

At least three, if not four harps in unison are necessary, if they are to be heard against a full orchestra playing _forte_. The more rapidly a _glissando_ pa.s.sage is played, the louder it will sound. Harmonic notes on the harp have great charm but little resonance, and are only possible played quite softly. Speaking generally, the harp, like the string quartet, _pizzicato_, is more an instrument of colour than expression.

Percussion instruments producing determinate sounds, keyed instruments.

Kettle-drums.

Kettle-drums, indispensable to every theatre and concert orchestra occupy the most important place in the group of percussion instruments. A pair of kettle-drums (_Timpani_), in the tonic and dominant keys, was the necessary attribute of an orchestra up to, and including Beethoven's time, but, from the middle of the 19th century onward, in western Europe and in Russia, an ever-increasing need was felt for the presence of three or even four kettle-drums, during the whole course or part of a work. If the expensive chromatic drum, permitting instant tuning is rarely met with, still, in the majority of good orchestras, three screw drums are generally to be found. The composer can therefore take it for granted that a good timpanist, having three kettle-drums at his command, will be able to tune at least one of them during a pause of some length.

The limits of possible change in Beethoven's time was considered to be:

Big kettle-drum: [Music: F2-C3 (chromatically)]

Small kettle-drum: [Music: B[flat]2-F3 (chromatically)]

In these days it is difficult to define the precise extent of high compa.s.s in the kettle-drums, as this depends entirely on the size and quality of the smallest one, of which there are many kinds, but I advise the composer to select:

[Music: E2-G[sharp]3 (chromatically)]

_Note._ A magnificent kettle-drum of very small size was made for my opera-ballet _Mlada_; this instrument gave the _D[flat]_ of the fourth octave.

Kettle-drums are capable of every dynamic shade of tone, from thundering _fortissimo_ to a barely perceptible _pianissimo_. In _tremolando_ they can execute the most gradual _crescendo_, _diminuendo_, the _sfp_ and _morendo_.

To deaden the sound, a piece of cloth is generally placed on the skin of the drum, according to the instruction: _timpani coperti_ (m.u.f.fled drums).

Table D.

Pizzicato.

Violin.

Viola.

Violoncello.