Cooley's Cyclopaedia of Practical Receipts Volume Ii Part 112

process, consists in enclosing the picture in a flat box, where it is exposed to the vapours of alcohol, part of which being absorbed by the resinous molecules, restore them to their original volume. Hence it follows that the gaps between the molecules being thus filled up, there is presented to the eye a continuous ma.s.s of transparent colour, as when the picture was freshly painted.

In the previous operation the resinous const.i.tuents only of the picture have been acted upon and restored to their normal condition. The hardened molecules of the oil which have been employed as a vehicle have likewise diminished in bulk, from the same causes, and in so doing have contributed to the lessening of the brightness of the picture. In cases where it is found the increased volume of resinous particles has failed to fill up the intervals between the shrunken oil molecules, Pettenkofer subjects the picture to a further process. In this, which he terms 'nouris.h.i.+ng it,' the picture is simply rubbed over with balsam of copaiba.

Oil, which was formerly employed for this purpose, is very strongly condemned by Pettenkofer.

Oil paintings, as probably most of our readers are aware, are mostly executed either on wood ('panel') or canvas, now princ.i.p.ally on the latter. Both these substances have to undergo a preliminary operation known as 'priming,' the priming being, in short, the ground on which the paint is placed. This priming may consist either of a number of layers composed of a mixture of chalk or plaster, with paste or glue, or else of a series of coats of oil colour. When a canvas or panel is prepared with the former, it is called 'distemper priming,' when with the latter, 'oil priming.' The distemper is the more quickly prepared, but is open to the objection of being easily broken, and of a liability to absorb moisture, by which it becomes liable to separate from the canvas.

If the priming be of oil colour it is desirable that the chief pigment used in making it should be white lead, and that if any other colours are added, they should be in comparatively small quant.i.ties. Dr R. Liebreich cites an example in which a departure from this precaution, persevered in from the middle of the 16th to that of the 17th century, by a celebrated school of Italian painters (the Bologna), has resulted in the destruction in their works of all the glazing of the picture, "so that those colours only can be recognised which either contain white, or are glazed on white." Furthermore, that the dark priming used by these artists has caused the dark parts of their pictures to become still darker.

This priming which was of a reddish-brown colour, was composed of a mixture of bole Armenian and umber; and it is conjectured it was employed with the object of modifying or softening too violent contrasts of light and dark colours, and thus of easily securing effective chiaroscuro, and of aiding rapid execution.

The Dutch and Flemish painters mostly employed a light coloured priming; sometimes it was of a light oak colour. Vand.y.k.e is said to have used grey grounds for his pictures, and in some few instances dull red ones; and since his pictures are free from the objectionable qualities met with in the works of the Bologna artists, it has been surmised that in this method of working, he had recourse to impasto colouring.

In the selection of wood, which is subsequently to be used for the picture, considerable judgment and experience are required, that from the toughest and soundest oaks, nut trees, or cedar, being sought after. The cutting it into boards, and seasoning it, are also points exacting a great amount of time and care.

The backs of pictures, if made of wood, in addition to their liability to attacks from insects, not unfrequently warp, or fissures form in them, or they may become hopelessly rotten.

When the picture warps, it should be moistened with water at the back, on which it should be lain for 24 hours, at the end of which time, or sometimes less, it becomes perfectly straight. Fissures may be filled up by pieces of wood cut to the required size. Small pieces of rotten wood, if not too near the painting, may be cut out and the gaps filled up with wedge-shaped pieces of wood. Where the loss is insignificant it may be stopped up with cement. When the panel is very rotten and decayed, it may be necessary to remove the picture from it altogether, and to place it either on a new panel, or upon what Dr Liebreich regards as better still, a piece of canvas.

This is by no means so formidable and astonis.h.i.+ng an operation as it may at first sight appear; in short, as will be directly shown, the picture may, if necessary, be freed from its priming even, without any difficulty.

Hacquin, of Paris, was one of the first to remove an oil painting from its base, and to place it upon a new one. He did this with one of Raphael's Madonnas, in the gallery of the Louvre; and the same treatment has since been extended to the 'Resurrection of Lazarus,' by Sebastian del Piombo, one of the pictures in our National Gallery. This process is generally accomplished as follows:--

"First of all the surface of the picture is pasted over with gauze and paper; after that the wood is made straight by moistening, or, if necessary, by making incisions with the saw, into which cuneiform pieces of wood are driven. By means of a tenon-saw the panel is to be sawn into little squares, which must be removed by a chisel, and in this way the thickness of the wood is reduced to half an inch; it is then planed until it becomes no thicker than paper, and the rest is removed by means of a knife and with the fingers.

"The painting being thus severed from its basis, it can be fixed on canvas if the priming is sufficiently preserved. In the opposite case a mixture made of chalk and glue, or something of the kind, must be put on first, and very evenly smoothed after being dry. This done the new canvas has to be fixed upon it by means of a mixture of glue, varnish, and turpentine, and the substance of the picture pressed tightly and evenly against it by means of warm irons."[86]

[Footnote 86: Liebreich.]

Defects in the priming of an oil painting, when they are confined to a slight separation of the priming of a canvas, may be remedied by pouring into the gap caused by the severance a little solution of size, and then pressing the separated surfaces gently together. Slight cracks must be filled up with fresh priming.

For paintings in which the whole of the priming seems insecure, or has extensively separated from the canvas, it is recommended to remove them entirely from the old basis and to transfer them to new panels or canvas.

The property of unchangeableness, or indisposition to fade, as exemplified in the retention of its freshness of colour by a picture, is one which, it is a.s.serted, is very much more generally met with in the pictures of the Italian,[87] and Dutch painters of the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries, than in those of the French and English schools of the last hundred years.

Opinions have been advanced in explanation of this circ.u.mstance. One is, that the older masters used pigments and vehicles of much greater purity and freedom from adulteration than the latter generations of painters; another, that they worked by a method and prepared their colours by a process unknown since their time, in fact, that they were possessed of a technical secret, which, as they never divulged it, has died with them; a third, that they had choice of many colours unknown in the present day.

[Footnote 87: From the Italian school must be excepted that of Bologna.]

One of the later and most valuable contributions to our knowledge of these points has been made by Dr R. Liebreich, in his lecture "On the Deterioration of Oil Paintings," delivered at the Royal Inst.i.tution, March 1st, 1878, which also embraces the practical deductions to be drawn from the results of his investigations. The plan adopted by Dr Liebreich for unravelling the so-called secret by which the old masters so generally contrived to secure permanency for their colours was ingenious and logical; it consisted in dissecting the structure and chemically a.n.a.lysing the pigments, vehicles, &c., of the pictures of the pupils of the great masters, for "fortunately they painted with the same material and by the same methods as the masters, and thousands of pictures by the pupils, well preserved and in different stages of decay, may be easily secured."

The third explanation previously given as a reason for the superior durability of the colouring of the old over the later oil paintings is thus disposed of by him. He says:--

"We meet very often with the idea that the old masters had been in possession of colours, that is, pigments, the knowledge of which has been lost, and that this accounts princ.i.p.ally for the difference between the oil paintings of the 15th and 16th centuries, on the one hand, and that of the 18th and 19th on the other. But this is a great mistake. We know perfectly well the pigments used by the old masters; we possess the same and a considerable number of new ones, good as well as bad, in addition."

He adds, "In using the expression of good and bad, I am thinking princ.i.p.ally of their durability. From this point of view the pigments can be placed under three headings:--

"1. Those that are durable in themselves and also agree well with the other pigments with which they have to be mixed.

"2. Such as when sufficiently isolated remain unaltered, but when in contact with certain other pigments change colour, or alter the others, or produce a reciprocal modification.

"3. Those which are so little durable that, even when isolated from other pigments, the mere contact of the vehicle, the air, or the light, makes them in time fade, darken, or disappear altogether.

"_The old masters used without reserve only those belonging to the first of these three categories. For those belonging to the second they imposed on themselves certain limits and precautions. Those belonging to the third they did not use at all._

"That some of the modern masters have not followed these principles is not owing to a lost secret, but to the fact they disregarded those well known principles, and even consciously acted against them. In Sir Joshua Reynolds' diary, for instance, we read that in order to produce certain tints of flesh, he mixed orpiment, carmine lake, and blue black together.

"Now, orpiment is one of the colours of the second category, carmine lake one of the third. That is to say, orpiment, as long as it remains isolated, keeps its brilliant yellow or reddish orange colour; but when mixed with white lead it decomposes, because it consists of sulphur and a.r.s.enic, and it moreover blackens the white lead, because the sulphur combines with it. Carmine lake, even if left isolated, does not stand as an oil colour, and, therefore, has been superseded by madder lake.

Unfortunately some of the most brilliant colours are perishable to such a degree that they ought never to be used; yet it seems to me that just in one branch of art, in which of late remarkable progress has been made, I mean landscape painting, the artists, in order to obtain certain effects of colour not easy to be realised, do not always resist the temptation to make use of a number of pigments, the non-durability of which is proved beyond doubt."

Another point which Dr Liebreich regards as of much more importance even than the selection and treatment of their pigments, and in which he says the old masters exercised great discretion, was the more sparing use of the vehicles and liquids they mixed with their colours.

He points out that there are certain pigments which when mixed with the oil impede its drying, whilst others there are which hasten it. "Supposing now," he says, "we should add to each of the different pigments the same quant.i.ty of oil, the drying of it would progress at different rates. But in reality this difference is very greatly increased by the fact that the different pigments require very different quant.i.ties of oil, in order to be ground to the consistency requisite for painting."

Pettenkofer quotes the following figures given to him by one of the colour manufacturers:--

100 parts (weight) White lead require 12 parts of oil.

" " Zinc white " 14 "

" " Green chrome " 15 "

" " Chrome yellow " 19 "

" " Vermilion " 25 "

" " Light red " 31 "

" " Madder lake " 62 "

" " Yellow ochre " 66 "

" " Light ochre " 72 "

" " Camel's brown " 75 "

" " Brown manganese " 87 "

" " Terre verte " 100 "

" " Parisian blue " 106 "

" " Burnt terre verte " 112 "

" " Berlin blue " 112 "

" " Ivory black " 112 "

" " Cobalt " 125 "

" " Florentine brown " 150 "

" " Burnt terra sienna " 181 "

" " Raw terra sienna " 140 "

According to this table, a hundred parts of the quick drying white lead are ground with twelve parts of oil, and on the other hand, slow-drying ivory black requires one hundred and twelve parts of oil.

It is very important that artists should have an exact knowledge of these matters. But it seems to me that they are insufficiently known to most of them. All, of course, know perfectly how different the drying quality of different colours is. But that these different colours introduce into the picture so different a quant.i.ty of the oil, and how large the quant.i.ty is in the colours they buy, and, further, that the oil as well as the mediums or siccatives they add to dry the colours are gradually transformed into a caoutchouc-like opaque substance, which envelopes and darkens the pigments, and, moreover, that the oil undergoes, not in the beginning, but much later on, when it is already completely dry, changes of volume, and so impairs the continuity of the picture--all this is not sufficiently known. Otherwise, the custom of painting with the ordinary oil colours, to be bought at any colourman's, would not have been going on for nearly a hundred years, in spite of all the clearly shown evil results--results due chiefly to the princ.i.p.al enemy of oil painting, that is to say, the oil.

A close optical examination and accurate study of the pictures of the French and English masters of the last hundred years have revealed to Dr Liebreich their princ.i.p.al defects, which he says are:--

1. Darkening of the opaque bright colours.

2. Fading of the transparent brilliant colours.

3. Darkening, and above all, cracking of the transparent dark colours. He states that these cracks are so characteristic and distinctive of the pictures of this period that they might be used as a test as to whether or not a picture really belonged to this school, or was only a copy.