Cooley's Cyclopaedia of Practical Receipts Volume I Part 65

=AUXILION.= A packet of small plasters for the painless and radical cure of corns. Each plaster is to be worn for about a week, and then the h.o.r.n.y pustule is to be removed with a sharp knife. The plaster is a compound of 1 part of resin plaster and 2 parts of lead plaster, and is likely to promote the removal and solution of the thick skin of the corns. (Hager.)

=AVA.= _Syn._ KAVA-KAVA. The native names of the root, a species of piper, the _piper methystic.u.m_, cultivated in Tahiti, Hawaii, the Society and Tongan Islands, the natives of which make it into an intoxicating drink.

It is said to have been used in France with excellent effect in gonorrha; and a tincture of it has been strongly recommended both for external and internal administration in gout. "For medicinal purposes it is used in the form of infusion," a drachm of the sc.r.a.ped root being macerated in a quart of water for five minutes. Its action appears to vary with the amount taken; in small doses it is generally stated to act as a stimulant and tonic, but when taken in large doses it produces an intoxication which differs from that caused by alcohol, in being of a silent and drowsy nature accompanied by incoherent dreams" ('Pharmaceutical Journal,' August 19th, 1876, which consult for further information.')

=AVE'NA.= [L.] The oat; oats.

=AVE'NIN= (-nin). _Syn._ AVENA'INE* (av-e-) AVENI'NA, &c., L.; AVeNINE, &c., Fr. A nitrogenous compound, a.n.a.logous to, and probably identical with, casein, obtained from oats, and on which its nutritiveness chiefly depends.

_Prep._ The grain, reduced to the state of powder or meal, is washed on a sieve, and the milky liquid, after being allowed to deposit its starch, is heated to about 200 Fahr., to coagulate the alb.u.men; when cold, acetic acid is added as long as a white powder falls, which is AVENIN; this is collected on a filter, drained, and dried by a gentle heat.

=AVEN'TURIN, Avant'urin= (-u-rin; -vo_ng_-too--Knowles and Smart). [Eng.

Fr.] A beautiful iridescent variety of rock crystal, minutely spangled throughout with yellow scales of mica (AVENTURIN, A. QUARTZ). A variety of felspar (A. FELSPAR) of somewhat similar appearance is found in the Continent and the Peninsula, of which the finer kinds are called A.

ORIENTALE and PIERRE DE SOLEIL by the lapidaries. Both varieties are now imitated by the gla.s.s and porcelain manufacturers. See GLa.s.s, GLAZE, PASTE, &c.

=A'VIARY= (-ve-). _Syn._ AVIA"RIUM, L.; VOLIeRE, Fr.; VOGELHAUS, VOGELHECKE, Ger. A place for keeping birds; generally applied to an enclosed s.p.a.ce or building in which birds are kept, or bred, on account of their rarity, plumage, or song; and not for food.

_Situa., &c._ For exotic birds, a place should be selected where the temperature can be maintained at a proper degree throughout the year, and which is well protected from the weather. This is commonly done by choosing a s.p.a.ce attached to the summerhouse or hot-house. When the aviary is only intended for birds of climates similar to our own, any part of the open garden may be chosen, and a portion closed in, either with trellis-work or wire-work, or netting; care being taken to provide, in some easily accessible portion of it, full protection from vicissitudes of weather and season. Nor must cleanliness, and due ventilation and protection from foul air or noxious fumes, be left unattended to.

=AVIGNON' BERRIES= (av-veen-yo_ng_). French berries.

=AV'OIRDUPOIS'= (av-er-du-pois'). The common weight of 16 oz. or 7000 gr.

to the lb., used in these realms for all kinds of goods, except jewelry and the precious metals, and medicines in dispensing, or as ordered in the 'British Pharmacopia' of 1867.

=AX'IS.= [L., Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AXE, Fr.; ACHSE, Ger. Primarily, that on or around which anything acts or performs; an axle or axle-tree. In _anatomy_, that on or around which any organ or part rests, gravitates, or centres. In _astronomy_, the diameter on or about which a celestial body revolves. In _botany_, part or parts about which particular organs are arranged; an imaginary line pa.s.sing from the base to the apex of a pericarp &c. In _crystallography_, imaginary lines pa.s.sing through the central points of a crystal, and about which the molecules or particles of matter composing it may be conceived to be symmetrically built up. In _geology_, the centre of a mountain-group. In _mechanics_, the straight line, real or imaginary, about which any body oscillates or revolves. See CRYSTAL, &c.

=AX'LE, Ax'le-tree= (aks'l). _Syn._ ESSIEU, Fr.; AXE (am rade), &c., Ger.

In _mechanics_, the pin, rod, or material line, on which a wheel, &c., turns. See ANTI-ATTRITION, FRICTION, &c.

=AX'UNGE= (-unje). _Syn._ AXUN'GIA, L. _Primarily_, 'wheel-grease,' the lard or fat of an animal; restricted in _pharmacy_ to hog's lard.--AXUNGIA CURA'TA, A. PREPARA'TA, is prepared or washed hog's lard (which _see_).

=AYER'S PILLS.= Sold in long wooden boxes, each containing 25 pills, covered with sugar and starch, and composed of pepper, colocynth, gamboge, and aloes. (Hager.)

=AZADIRACHTA INDICA.= (Ind. Ph.) Nim or Margosa Tree. (Ind. Ph.) _Habitat._ Common throughout India; often cultivated in gardens.

_Officinal parts._--1. The bark (_Azadirachtae cortex_, Nim bark). It varies much in appearance, according to the size and age of the tree producing it. The bark from the trunk of a tree above three or four years of age is covered with a thick scaly epidermis, and varies in thickness from 1/4 to 1/2 inch. That from the smaller branches is smooth, of a dullish purple colour, marked by longitudinal lines of ash-coloured epidermis, from 1/8th to 1/12th of an inch apart. The inner layer of the bark, of a whitish colour in the fresh state, is powerfully bitter, far more so than the outer dark-coloured layer, which, however, possesses a greater amount of astringency. It contains a crystallisable principle (margosine) and an astringent principle (catechin).--2. The fresh leaves (_Azadirachtae folia_, Nim leaves).--_Properties._ Bark astringent tonic and antiperiodic; leaves stimulant.--_Therapeutic uses._ In intermittent and other paroxysmal fevers, in general debility, and convalescence after febrile and other diseases, the bark has been employed with success. The leaves form a useful application to ulcers and skin diseases when a mild stimulant is required.--_Dose._ Of the powdered bark, a drachm three or four times a day.

_Preparations._ DECOCTION OF NIM BARK (Decoctum Azadirachtae). Take of the inner layer of nim bark, bruised, 2 _oz._; water, a pint and a half. Boil for 15 minutes, and strain whilst hot.--_Dose._ As an antiperiodic, from 1-1/2 to 3 _fl. oz._, every second hour previous to an expected paroxysm.

As a tonic, 1 or 2 _fl. oz._ twice or thrice daily. As this decoction soon decomposes in hot weather, it should be prepared fresh for use when required.

TINCTURE OF NIM BARK (_Tinctura Azadirachtae_). Take of the inner layer of nim bark, bruised, 2-1/2 _oz._; proof spirit, 1 pint. Macerate for seven days in a closed vessel, with occasional agitation; strain, press, filter, and add sufficient proof spirit to make 1 pint. It may also be prepared by percolation in the same manner as Tincture of Calumba, q. v.--_Dose._ From 1/2 to 2 _fl. dr._ as a tonic.

POLTICE OF NIM LEAVES (Cataplasma Azadirachtae). Take of fresh nim leaves a sufficiency; bruise and moisten with tepid water. A good stimulant application to indolent and ill-conditioned ulcers. Should it cause pain and irritation, as it sometimes does, equal parts of rice-flour and linseed-meal may be added. The bitter oil of the seeds is held in high repute by the natives as an anthelmintic, and as an external application in rheumatism. It is also said to be an insecticide.

=AZOERYTH'RYN= (-rith'-rin). A substance obtained, by Kane, from archil.

It is insoluble in alcohol, ether, and water; but is very soluble in alkaline lyes, to which it imparts a port-wine colour.

=AZO'IC.= _Syn._ AZoOT'IC; AZO'ICUS, AZoOT'ICUS, &c., L. Lifeless; wholly dest.i.tute of organic life. In _geology_, &c., applied to strata which do not contain organic remains.

=AZOLIT'MIN= (az-o-lit'-min). A dark-red substance obtained, by Kane, from litmus, of which it forms a large portion of the colouring matter. It is insoluble in alcohol, and in water unless alkalised.

=AZ'OTE*= (az'ote; a'-zote). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AZO'TUM*, L.; AZOT*, Ger.

Nitrogen (because it is unfit for respiration, _i.e._ destroys life).

=AZOT'IC.= _Syn._ AZOT'Ic.u.m, L.; AZOTIQUE, Fr.; AZOTISCH, Ger. Of or like azote, or containing it or formed from it; irrespirable; destructive to life.--AZOTIC ACID is nitric acid; A. GAS, nitrogen.--AZO'TOUS ACID was nitrous acid.

=AZ'OTISED= (-tizd). _Syn._ NITROGENISED, Containing azote or nitrogen; a common epithet of nitrogenous substances used as food.

=AZ'URE= (azh'-ure; a'zhure--Knowles, Smart, Walker). _Syn._ CaeRU'LEUM, L.; AZUR, Fr.; h.e.l.lBLAU, HIMMELBLAU, Ger. In _dyeing_ and _painting_, sky-blue; also the name of one or more pigments which possess this colour.

See BLUE DYES, BLUE PIGMENTS, SMALTS, ULTRAMARINE, &c.

=AZ'URE-STONE.= Lapis lazuli.

=AZ'URITE= (-ite). In _mineralogy_, lazulite; blue malachite; sometimes, lapis lazuli (the name being, unfortunately, very loosely applied by different writers).

=AZ'YMOUS= (-e-mus). _Syn._ AZ'YMUS, L. Unleavened; unfermented; as sea-biscuit. Unleavened bread was formerly termed AZ'YME (-e-me) and AZ'YMUS by theologists.

=BAB'LAH.= The rind or sh.e.l.l of the fruit of _mimosa cineraria_. According to Dr Ure, it contains a considerable quant.i.ty of gallic acid, some tannin, a red colouring principle, and an azotised substance, and is the article imported from the East Indies and Senegal under the name of NEB-NEB.--Used as a cheap dye-stuff for various shades of drab and grey.

=BAC'CA= (bak'-a). [L.; pl., bac'cae, bak'-se.] A berry.

=BACK.= [D., bak, a bowl or cistern.] _Syn._ BAC. In _brewing_, a large, open, flat reservoir or cistern; commonly that in which wort is cooled. In _distillation_, the vessel into which the wort is pumped from the coolers, in order to be 'worked' with yeast. The LIQUOR-BACK in a brewery, distillery, or rectifying house is the water reservoir or cistern.

=BACKS.= In the _leather trade_, the thickest and stoutest portion of the hide, used for sole-leather.

=BACON= (ba'-kn). [W., baccun, prob. from Ger., bache, a wild sow; "old Fr., for dried flesh or pork"--Craig.] The flesh of swine salted and dried, and subsequently either smoked or not. The term is usually restricted to the sides and belly so prepared; the other parts of the animal having distinctive names. Sometimes, though rarely, the term is extended to the flesh of bears, and of other like animals, cured in a similar manner.

_Qual., &c._ When bacon has been properly prepared from young and well-fed animals, and is neither 'stale' nor 'rusty,' it forms a very wholesome and excellent article of food, especially adapted for a light or hasty meal, or as a relish for bread or vegetables. For persons with a weak stomach, and for invalids, great care should be taken to cook it without injuring its flavour, or rendering it indigestible. This is best effected by cutting it into slices of moderate thickness, and carefully broiling or toasting it; avoiding dressing it too hastily, too slowly, or too much.

The common practice of cooking it in almost wafer-like slices, until it becomes brown and crisp, renders it not merely indigestible, but also a most fertile source of heartburn and dyspepsia. Fried bacon is remarkably strong, and is hence more likely to offend the stomach than when it is broiled, or preferably toasted before the fire; the last being, of all others, the best way of dressing it so as to preserve its delicacy and flavour. Gourmands, however, often esteem, as 'une bonne bouche,' bacon dressed in the flame arising from the dropping of its own fat.

_Choice._ Good bacon has a thin rind, and an agreeable odour, the fat has a firm consistence and a slightly reddish tinge; the lean is of a pleasing red colour, is tender, and adheres, whilst raw, strongly to the bone. When the fat is yellow, it is either 'rusty' or becoming so, and should be avoided. The streaky parts are not only those which are most esteemed, but are the most wholesome.

Bacon should be broiled or toasted in front of the fire. The rashers should be in thin slices, and the rind should be removed. The melted fat from the bacon should never be wasted. To partake of all broiled meats in perfection they should be served up as soon as they are taken off the gridiron.

=BACTERIUM= (BACTERION, a little rod). Since the publication of the researches of Professor Cohn, of Breslau, upon the nature of this organism, the idea previously entertained by Ehrenberg and others as to its animal origin has been long abandoned, and microscopists now very generally regard it as belonging to the vegetable kingdom. It is probably one of the lowest and most simple forms of vegetable or animal life, and consists of an envelope more or less enclosing protoplasm--the nitrogenous substance from which the cell nucleus is formed. Dr Lionel Beale very carefully crushed a very large bacterium while under observation by the microscope, and when the external membrane was ruptured the protoplasm was seen to escape, and to exhibit what Dr Beale regards as vital movement. In form, bacteria may be either globular, rod-shaped, egg-shaped, or filamentous. Cohn has described a variety presenting the appearance of beaded chains, or aggregations.

Bacteria vary considerably in size, some being as much as 1/3000th of an inch in length, whilst others are less than 1/10000th, and are only visible by the aid of a gla.s.s of very high power, such as the 1/50th of an inch objective. Dr Beale says, "The germs from which the little particles spring are far more minute and more difficult to identify. They appear as minute specks, the largest of them exhibiting a circular outline, and probably being spherical. The smallest are too minute to be discerned with the highest magnifying powers at our command. If a specimen of fluid in which these particles are rapidly growing and multiplying be carefully examined, many points will be observed to appear from time to time. After watching with great care for a considerable time a given spot I have a.s.sured myself that new particles actually come into existence; and that one does not, after intently watching for a time and concentrating the attention upon a certain s.p.a.ce, merely see one coming into view one after another, as star after star. The material in which the minute germs of bacteria are imbedded, and which, at least in part, consists of formed material produced by the bacteria, is much softer than the matter of which the capsule of fungi consists. It is, perhaps, almost as soft as mucus. I believe that even the most minute bacterium germ is surrounded by a layer of such soft formed matter, in which very minute particles of bioplasm (protoplasm) divide and subdivide before they attain even the 1/100000th of an inch in diameter. When, therefore, bacteria in an early stage of development dry, it is not possible to identify them. When moistened, the dry ma.s.s swells up, and the bioplasm in the soft mucus-like matter grows, each particle producing a fresh investment of formed material, and then if the conditions are favorable, the germs either at once divide and subdivide for a time, or grow into perfect bacteria, which move freely and grow and multiply in this more advanced stage of development."

Bacteria increase by bisection, and when the surrounding conditions are favorable their rate of production is marvellous. It has been computed that an individual bacterium will generate nearly 17,000,000 of its fellows within twenty-four hours. The very probable vegetable origin and nature of bacteria insisted upon by Professor Cohn not only appears to derive great support from his researches into the metamorphoses they undergo during development, &c., but also from their behaviour with certain chemical reagents. For instance, it was found that boiling them in solution of potash had no effect, and also when treated with sulphuric acid and iodine they deported themselves somewhat as cellulin does under like circ.u.mstances; although from their extreme minuteness any changes that take place in their tissue are very difficult to observe. Another remarkable a.n.a.logy presented between bacteria and plants is the manner in which they both a.s.similate the elements of which they are built up; for they derive their nitrogen not from previously existing alb.u.minous compounds, but from ammonia.

They may be made to develop themselves in any fluid if the fluid contains an organic substance in which carbon is present, a nitrogenous substance which need not be organic, and a phosphate. They appear to derive their carbon by the decomposition of almost any substance, containing this element except carbonic acid, and they will obtain their nitrogen from a nitrate, the nitrate becoming reduced to the state of a nitrite. A knowledge of these facts will of course indicate the method to be followed if we wish to obtain bacteria. All that we have to do is to prepare a liquid that fulfils the conditions just stated. Dr J. Burdon Sanderson gives the following formula for one:--Phosphate of pota.s.sium 1/2 per cent., sulphate of magnesium, 1/2 per cent., dissolve in water having a trace of phosphate of calcium in suspension, and then add a per cent. of tartrate of ammonium, and boil the mixture. If properly boiled the liquid will be free from bacteria; but the contact of almost any organic substance, for example, a drop of water, a pinch of hay, a morsel of meal, &c., will cause their appearance.

The tenacity of life exhibited by the bacteria is extremely great. Dr Beale says, "Extreme dryness does not destroy them, and they withstand a temperature far below the freezing point; and that under adverse circ.u.mstances they remain dormant, and are not destroyed by a degree of heat which is fatal probably to every other living organism." Bastian says that the germs of bacteria are destroyed at a temperature of 160 F., but others are of opinion that under certain circ.u.mstances these germs are not killed at 212, and that they may increase and multiply after having been exposed to this degree of heat. Professor Tyndall indeed has shown that in one experiment heating for a quarter of an hour at a temperature of 230 F. was insufficient to destroy them, whilst in another the five minutes'

exposure of an atmosphere containing them to the incandescence of the voltaic current failed to kill them.

Cohn relates that manufacturers of pots of preserved peas at Lubek have since 1858 been obliged to cook them in a solution of 28 per cent. of salt, at a temperature of 226 F., to prevent the putrefaction of their contents, as in warm years nearly half the pots were found to be spoiled.

In experiments made in conjunction with Dr Hare, Cohn found that in infusions boiled for less than fifteen minutes organisms were, without exceptions, developed. Somewhat lower temperature proved fatal to the great majority of bacteria. Those that survived were all found to belong to the genus _Bacillus_, and among _bacilli_ to the species _Bacillus subtilis_.

The experiments of Drs Ferrier and Burdon Sanderson would seem to show that bacteria do not nominally exist in the fluids and tissues of the body, but that their presence in the animal fluids may be traced to external surface contamination with ordinary water, the extent of their development being in proportion to the amount of the contamination. They contend that different varieties of water possess different degrees of what they term the 'zymotic power.' They examined the waters supplied by the several London water companies, and they found them to consist of varying degrees of bacterian impurity. They a.s.sert that all except freshly distilled water teems with invisible germs of bacteria. Writing of the universality of the presence of bacteria and bacterian germs, Dr Beale remarks:--"It would be difficult to say where bacterium germs do not exist. In air, in water, in the soil adhering to tiny particles of every kind, in every region of the earth, from the poles to the equator, they are found. In the substance of the tissues--nay, in the cells of almost all plants, and in the interstices of the tissues of many animals--bacteria germs exist. I know not what part of the body of man and the higher animals is entirely dest.i.tute of particles which under favorable circ.u.mstances develop into bacteria. Upon the skin and the surface of the mucous membranes they exist in profusion, and they abound in the mouth and in the follicles and glands."