Rising Tide. Part 7

Percy reciprocated with contempt. The crowds were peasants, Anglo-Saxons Anglo-Saxons, while the Percys considered themselves descended from n.o.bles, the Norman conquerors of the Anglo-Saxons, from Harry Percy, Shakespeare's Hotspur. At one rally, LeRoy's son Will "looked over the ill-dressed, surly audience, unintelligent and slinking, and heard him appeal to them for fair treatment of the Negro.... They were the sort of people who lynched Negroes, that mistake hoodlumism for wit, and cunning for intelligence, that attend revivals and fight and fornicate in the bushes afterwards." LeRoy himself, interrupted during a speech with shouts of "Hurrah for Vardaman!" "Hurrah for Bilbo!," called the crowd "cattle" and "rednecks."

Vardaman reacted with mockery, arriving at rallies on carts drawn by oxen while his supporters began wearing red ties. "We are the low-brows! We are the rednecks! Rah for Vardaman!" the crowds shouted.

On July 4, 1911, Percy addressed the angriest crowd yet at Lauderdale Springs, where he distastefully shared a platform with Bilbo. Five thousand people were seething before him. Will described the scene: "When Father rose to speak he was greeted by a roar of boos, catcalls, hisses, and cries of 'Vardaman! Vardaman!'...The din was insane and intolerable.... I was glad to observe Billie Hardie with his pistol across his lap. Father faced that obscene pandemonium, paused for the courtesy of silence, and when he did not receive it, his eyes narrowed. Then burning cold insults poured from his lips, he jeered them as cowards afraid to listen, and dared them to keep on."

Finally, the crowd fell silent while all the vileness of the campaign welled up in LeRoy. He did not give a speech. He unleashed a torrent of vitriol, first on Vardaman. Then he pointedly turned his back on Bilbo, called him a liar, tongue-lashed him while Bilbo reddened, compared standing near him to picking up a "striped caterpillar" out of the muck and swallowing it "to see how strong my stomach was." In a final mockery, the crowd cheered and cheered.

Vardaman received 79,369 votes in the 1911 primary, and Charlton Alexander, who entered the race when Percy showed weakness, received 31,490. Percy, the inc.u.mbent senator, got 21,521. Bilbo won his race with comparable ease.

One could hardly suffer a more crus.h.i.+ng loss. Teddy Roosevelt wrote Percy: "My dear Senator, I am sure you would be pleased if you knew how men who in the right sense of the word are gentlemen in public life, in entirely different sections of the country, men such as Cabot Lodge of Ma.s.sachusetts...have talked about your being in the Senate, and then about your leaving it. It was a piece of national good fortune to have you in the Senate; it is a calamity from the standpoint of the nation that you have been beaten."

ELSEWHERE IN THE S SOUTH, others like Vardaman-or worse-were also winning elections, men like Tom Watson in Georgia, Thomas Heflin in Alabama, Ben Tillman in South Carolina. (When Roosevelt dined with Booker T. Was.h.i.+ngton in the White House, Tillman warned it "will necessitate our killing a thousand n.i.g.g.e.rs before they will learn their place again.") The men of Percy's cla.s.s had ruled in their own interest and in cla.s.s interest. But they had had a code of honor and only, at worst, personal hatreds. They were better than those who were replacing them, who had a darkness in the soul.

The Percys of the world, the patricians, the "Bourbons," the "best" white men to whom even Du Bois looked for protection, still controlled the money of the South, but only in a narrow strip of the Delta and in the state of Louisiana did they still control the politics. Of seventy-nine counties in Mississippi in 1911, Percy carried only five, all in the Delta, which represented less than half of it. Only in Was.h.i.+ngton County did he win an absolute majority. Percy's empire, and that of all the old aristocracy of the South, had shrunk to one county.

Even the river brought home the change. In 1912 the Mississippi rose higher than it ever had. It spilled over in many places, crashed through in others. In Greenville, Percy helped organize a flood fight and held his front against the river. But just above Was.h.i.+ngton County, the New York Times New York Times reported, an engineer who ran out of sandbags "ordered...several hundred negroes...to lie down on top of the levee and as close together as possible. The black men obeyed, and although spray frequently dashed over them, they prevented the overflow that might have developed into an ugly creva.s.se. For an hour and a half this lasted, until the additional sandbags arrived." reported, an engineer who ran out of sandbags "ordered...several hundred negroes...to lie down on top of the levee and as close together as possible. The black men obeyed, and although spray frequently dashed over them, they prevented the overflow that might have developed into an ugly creva.s.se. For an hour and a half this lasted, until the additional sandbags arrived."

The men were convicts, and the Times Times called the idea "brilliant." But Percy did not approve. To him men were economic units competing with other men, not with sandbags. He would not have other such incidents. No local paper mentioned it. With new energy Percy concentrated on maintaining in the Delta, or at least Was.h.i.+ngton County, the society he had envisioned. called the idea "brilliant." But Percy did not approve. To him men were economic units competing with other men, not with sandbags. He would not have other such incidents. No local paper mentioned it. With new energy Percy concentrated on maintaining in the Delta, or at least Was.h.i.+ngton County, the society he had envisioned.

After leaving the Senate for the last time, Percy wrote a friend: "If I can keep this small corner of the United States in which I reside, comparatively clean and decent in politics and fit for a man to live in, and in such a condition that he may not be ashamed to pa.s.s it on to his children, I will have accomplished all that I set out to do. A good deal has been written about 'shooting for the stars.' I have never thought much of that kind of marksmans.h.i.+p.... I rather think it is best to draw a bead on something that you have a chance to hit. To keep any part of Mississippi clean and decent in these days, is a job that no man may deem too small."

CHAPTER TEN.

LEROY P PERCY had in fact sculpted a remarkable world, an island of order and reason in a sea of entropy and chaos. Yet it was not without its own internal inconsistencies, and combined equal parts of frontier and sophistication. had in fact sculpted a remarkable world, an island of order and reason in a sea of entropy and chaos. Yet it was not without its own internal inconsistencies, and combined equal parts of frontier and sophistication.

At the outbreak of World War I the Delta was still the Wild West of the South. More than 60 percent of the land remained wilderness, with bears still invading cornfields and wolves devouring livestock. Like the West, and unlike the already settled South, it had few churches, few schools, much drinking (despite statewide prohibition), and violence. Violence and pa.s.sion were everywhere, bred in its endlessly flat earth. Standing on cleared land one saw all sky, and a man had to stand straight and tall, had to feel his own pride intruding upon the sky, or he would sink into the mud. One did not turn the other cheek in the Delta. Neither black nor white turned the other cheek. The homicide rate in Mississippi dwarfed that of the rest of the nation, and the Delta's dwarfed that of the rest of Mississippi. More than 75 percent of Delta blacks in the state penitentiary had been convicted of murder or attempted murder, double the percentage for black prisoners from outside the Delta. Whites also killed. Judge Percy Bell observed that before state prohibition, "Shootings were comparatively frequent around [Greenville] saloons, and few if any white men were indicted or tried."

Incongruously, cotton had simultaneously created an elite whose sons went to Harvard, Princeton, and Cornell and traveled the world; in 1914 several Greenville planters attending the annual Wagner festival in Bayreuth, Germany, were stranded by the outbreak of war. After the war, with cotton prices soaring, the best Delta land brought $1,000 an acre, making the Percy land suddenly, if only briefly, worth several hundred million of today's dollars. Even the social elite of New Orleans considered Greenville exceptional. Leonidas Pool, a New Orleans bank president who frequently played cards with Percy at the Boston Club and occasionally hunted with him, was Rex, King of Mardi Gras, in 1925. When his daughter moved to Greenville, he told her, "You are going among the aristocrats of the earth."

By the 1920s, Greenville had become "The Queen City of the Delta," with twelve miles of paved streets. Its population reached 15,000 souls, all nestled close to the river. Downtown teemed with life. Barges piled with goods docked at the concrete wharf, warehouses burst with cotton, trucks and spavined mules pulled supplies. The city had one French and two Italian restaurants, twenty-four-hour coffee shops, bowling alleys and pool halls and movie theaters. The biggest entertainers, including Enrico Caruso and Al Jolson, regularly stopped at the Opera House or the even larger People's Theater. Enough Chinese lived in Greenville that a tong war erupted. The four-story Cowan Hotel was the state's finest. The Armour Packing Company, the largest meatpacker between Memphis and New Orleans, distributed fresh meat throughout the Delta and into the hill country. Three cotton exchanges each had a wire to Liverpool, New Orleans, New York, and Chicago. The Greenville Cotton Compress, a huge operation owned by Percy, baled cotton and sold it directly to international buyers. Fourteen trains a day arrived in Greenville at the Y&MV railroad station; six more trains arrived daily at the Columbus & Greenville station. Four oil mills, the smallest covering two city blocks, crushed cotton seed. Half a dozen sawmills worked the great ma.s.ses of logs floated to them; the two largest each made 150,000 board feet of lumber a day.

The city's most exclusive gathering place was the Swan Lake Club, a shooting club outside the city. Since anyone in the Delta acceptable for members.h.i.+p already belonged, no guests were allowed who lived within a hundred miles. The Greenville Country Club was new; it and the Mississippi Club were for the fine families, and unlike other cities-including nearby Greenwood-both had Jewish members. (Only the Garden Club excluded Jews.) The Elysian Club, a two-storied yellow brick building with a vast porch, held dances renowned throughout the Delta; fans were placed behind a 300-pound block of ice to blow air over it and cool the room, and a hedge in front was used to hide corn whiskey. W. C. Handy, one of the fathers of the blues, frequently played there. The Elks Club, a step down the social scale, concentrated on poker, and a Rotary club met. There were few speakeasies but plenty of liquor; men carried whiskey in brown bags and snuck away to dark corners to drink it straight or with a chaser of c.o.ke or water. And there was one club that only Percy and a few other gentlemen patronized. On the edge of the city was the home of a beautiful, light-skinned black woman whose daughters were equally beautiful and even lighter. Elegant and charming, she often played hostess to Percy. He and others would stay deep into the night, usually playing cards.

More than half of Greenville's population was black, and there were two black neighborhoods. If young men from one entered the other, trouble followed. Newtown lay north of downtown; there "blacks tried to be citified, uppity," according to one black man. Southside was more working-cla.s.s. Most blacks worked on the river, or in the sawmills, or as servants for whites. By 6 A.M. A.M. the streets were alive with maids and cooks and chauffeurs heading to white folks' homes. Several black doctors and dentists had offices in two buildings on the edge of downtown. There was a black printer, a black-owned newsstand serving whites, several black funeral home operators, black shoe repairmen. A black bank was nurtured largely by money from black prost.i.tutes who serviced white men only. Their brothels flourished just east of downtown, near Broadway and Nelson, across from the pride of the black community, Mt. h.o.r.eb Church, a small but magnificent stone structure. A block away, there were black juke joints and pool halls and gambling joints. There was liquor, and women, and the blues. And there were knives, razors, and pistols. the streets were alive with maids and cooks and chauffeurs heading to white folks' homes. Several black doctors and dentists had offices in two buildings on the edge of downtown. There was a black printer, a black-owned newsstand serving whites, several black funeral home operators, black shoe repairmen. A black bank was nurtured largely by money from black prost.i.tutes who serviced white men only. Their brothels flourished just east of downtown, near Broadway and Nelson, across from the pride of the black community, Mt. h.o.r.eb Church, a small but magnificent stone structure. A block away, there were black juke joints and pool halls and gambling joints. There was liquor, and women, and the blues. And there were knives, razors, and pistols.

On Sat.u.r.days downtown was packed. From all around the county both whites and blacks poured into it to shop, or look-really just to socialize. On Sat.u.r.days a single drugstore could sell 1,400 ice-cream cones. Young men took their girls to the Kandy Kitchen for confections. Opposite it was a spot called "pa.s.sion corner."

In the 1920s, Greenville was a thriving small metropolis, and, like most ports, more cosmopolitan than neighboring communities. But what set. Greenville apart was the imprint that Percy and those few who allied themselves with him had imposed.

GREENVILLE'S SCHOOLS epitomized the difference. In 1920 the city spent $85 per white pupil, double the state's second-most-generous locality; five Mississippi counties in the hills spent less than $5 per white child, while one spent only $2.75. The teachers and facilities were outstanding, and for its size Greenville produced an extraordinary number of writers, including LeRoy's son William Alexander Percy and great-nephew Walker Percy, epitomized the difference. In 1920 the city spent $85 per white pupil, double the state's second-most-generous locality; five Mississippi counties in the hills spent less than $5 per white child, while one spent only $2.75. The teachers and facilities were outstanding, and for its size Greenville produced an extraordinary number of writers, including LeRoy's son William Alexander Percy and great-nephew Walker Percy,* David Cohn, Ellen Douglas, Beverly Lowry, Charles Bell, and Shelby Foote. David Cohn, Ellen Douglas, Beverly Lowry, Charles Bell, and Shelby Foote.

For blacks, Greenville schools were, relatively, even more special. The city spent $17 per black child, compared to 68 cents in another district. At the same time that many Mississippi politicians opposed teaching blacks arithmetic and reading, Greenville public schools offered blacks Latin. Lizzie Coleman, princ.i.p.al of the black high school, intimidated students and teachers into excelling. She made each teacher raise $150 a year for the school, and also said, "I don't believe in the melting pot." But she knew how to survive. During the week she bought groceries from two black men; on Sat.u.r.days she bought steaks from Will Reed, a white man, on Was.h.i.+ngton Avenue. The steak was more expensive, but that did not matter. Because of her good relations.h.i.+ps with whites, when black teachers asked school superintendent E. E. Ba.s.s to stop calling them by their first names in front of their students, he agreed to address them in school as "Mr.," "Mrs.," or "Miss." Greenville was also state headquarters for several black fraternal organizations, including the Pythians and the Masons, and Percy had even sued a white fraternal organization on their behalf and won.

In addition, before settling upon whom to support for office, Percy and a few others whites routinely met with black community leaders to ask their opinions; though few Greenville blacks could vote, this process did give them some voice in the election.

If Greenville reflected Percy's values, however, reflections are the thinnest of veneers. By the 1920s the city was growing beyond him. To a friend who had moved away, he observed, "Our town has grown some in population, and improved much in comfort and attractiveness, but there were more men and women possessing individuality, personality and charm in the dear dead days when you knew it, than there are today."

One demographic change was the arrival of whites from the Mississippi hill country. The prosperity of the Delta brought them. The oil mills and sawmills and office supply stores and meatpacking plants brought them. The hill country was home to the whites who elected Vardaman and Bilbo. With them came different values. And with them came the Ku Klux Klan.

THE 1920S K KLAN had roots that ran deep in America. It was racist, anti-Catholic, and anti-Semitic. Yet it represented not only bigotry, but a desire to find an anchor in a sea of change, to shrink the large world into a smaller, more understandable one. For men and women who were middle-aged in the 1920s had lived through more change than did citizens during any other period in American history. had roots that ran deep in America. It was racist, anti-Catholic, and anti-Semitic. Yet it represented not only bigotry, but a desire to find an anchor in a sea of change, to shrink the large world into a smaller, more understandable one. For men and women who were middle-aged in the 1920s had lived through more change than did citizens during any other period in American history.

The nation was both striding into and resisting the modern age. Robert G.o.ddard was demonstrating the practicality of rockets; talking pictures reached movie screens; radio linked the country together for the first time; even television came into existence. So did national advertising, national brands, and national fads and chain stores-in 1923 more Mah-Jongg sets than radios were sold, while Woolworth's had 1,500 stores.

Simultaneously, in what seemed almost another country, fundamentalists were rejecting science and trying to outlaw the teaching of evolution. National Prohibition arrived, and its pa.s.sage embodied a union of the strangest bedfellows: the emerging force of moralistic and muscular Christianity lay down with the dying force of Progressives who believed in the perfectibility of man and the ability of rational human engineering to control behavior.

The tensions contained within those two nations-the one surging forward, the other clenching tight-grew out of more fundamental s.h.i.+fts. The nineteenth century had seen tremendous change, but it was a time of certainty and rules. Nature's laws appeared fixed and certain. If science had begun to undermine faith in G.o.d, the theory of evolution still guaranteed a happy future. Herbert Spencer, the author of the phrase "survival of the fittest," proclaimed, "The ultimate development of the ideal man is logically certain."

The twentieth century would be a century without certainty. In 1905, Albert Einstein published his theory of relativity and exploded the mechanistic universe. Soon the reliability of engineering gave way to the "uncertainty principle" of physics. In 1909, Sigmund Freud came to Worcester, Ma.s.sachusetts, to lecture at Clark University and show Americans that nothing was as it seemed. Meanwhile, women were winning the right to vote, entering the workforce in large numbers, and forcing a rea.s.sessment even of gender.

As the intellectual base upon which the world rested s.h.i.+fted, its moral pillars cracked. A new s.e.xuality suffused the nation. In 1908 skirts touched the floor; in 1915 the word "flapper" entered the language; in 1924 skirts touched the knee. The automobile and radio altered the experience of time and distance; the automobile also created s.e.xual opportunities. In 1919, barely 10 percent of cars were enclosed; by 1927, 82.8 percent were. Jazz music was suggestive, wild, lewd. In the nineteenth century, virtually every school in the country used McGuffey's Readers, anthologies that taught morality as much as reading, including the story of George Was.h.i.+ngton and the cherry tree. By Teddy Roosevelt's presidency McGuffey's Readers were losing favor. Instead, The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam was selling millions of copies; it sang of seduction and youth and the infinite present. Social commentator Mark Sullivan noted, "Many an American adult in the 1920s remembered as a landmark the day he read Omar's line, 'I myself am Heaven and h.e.l.l.'" was selling millions of copies; it sang of seduction and youth and the infinite present. Social commentator Mark Sullivan noted, "Many an American adult in the 1920s remembered as a landmark the day he read Omar's line, 'I myself am Heaven and h.e.l.l.'"

The essential character of America was changing as well. In 1870, America's population was 40 million, 72 percent of whom lived in small towns or on farms. Between 1900 and 1915, 15 million immigrants flooded the United States. Mostly from eastern and southern Europe, the new immigrants were different from most Americans already here. They were truly foreign, strange in religion, darker in complexion. And 1920 marked the first time that more than half of America's population, now 110 million, lived in cities. It was frightening, deracinating.

This was not the America in which those who were adults in the 1920s had grown up. The nation's very ident.i.ty seemed under a.s.sault, and an aching for community developed. The first organized outgrowth of this longing came in Chicago in 1905, when a group of men trying to re-create the sense of small-town community started the Rotary Club; it required members to address each other by their first names.

Then, during the World War, President Woodrow Wilson turned the desire for community into something foul by encouraging, manipulating, and exploiting the nation's fears. His administration warned of hidden enemies undermining the nation, enemies to be found and cast out. George Creel ran Wilson's propaganda machine and demanded "100% Americanism." At his peak 150,000 people worked under his umbrella. (John Parker once walked into the White House and told Wilson that in the entire civilized world there was "no more arbitrary ruler.") One newspaper editor complained, "Government conscripted public opinion as they conscripted men and women and materials.... They mobilized it. They put it in charge of drill sergeants. They goose-stepped it."

Creel's words created a hysteria. Beatings occurred across the nation. Near St. Louis a German-American defended Germany in an argument; a mob stripped him naked, wrapped him in an American flag, dragged him through the streets, and lynched him.

Congress, ignoring the Const.i.tution, pa.s.sed the Sedition Act, which made it illegal-punishment was twenty years in jail-to "utter, print, write or publish any disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language about the government of the United States...or any language intended to...encourage resistance to the United States."

Wilson's attorney general, A. Mitch.e.l.l Palmer, "the Fighting Quaker," prosecuted more than 2,000 people for violating this and related acts. He also developed a nation of informers by helping create the American Protective League, whose 12,000 local units spied on neighbors and coworkers. Other groups, such as the National Security League and the Allied Loyalty League, also fed names to the government.

In Greenville, Mississippi, LeRoy Percy looked on with contempt. He wrote his friend d.i.c.kinson, a former secretary of war: "If this country lives through the scholarly idiocy of the present administration, Providence must certainly be watching us. If we could only swap the well-turned sentences of Wilson for the homely wisdom of Cleveland or Lincoln." He also believed that an opportunity existed to pa.s.s federal anti-lynching legislation, which he had long supported, "at the close of the war as an expression of the kindly feeling of the nation toward the negro race." Percy was misjudging the times.

DESPITE PEACE, 1919 opened with Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis sentencing Wisconsin Congressman Victor Berger and several others to twenty years in prison for sedition. (The House voted 309 to 1 to expel Berger; he won the special election to fill the open seat and the House refused to swear him in.) The Supreme Court upheld several earlier sedition convictions, including the ten-year prison sentence of Socialist Eugene Debs, who the next year would receive 915,000 votes for president. Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote the opinion calling the Sedition Act const.i.tutional, arguing that the First Amendment did not protect speech if "the words used...create a clear and present danger."

Then came violence. In Was.h.i.+ngton, in Chicago, in twenty-six major cities, race riots erupted. Far more blacks than whites died. In Elaine, Arkansas, north and across the Mississippi River from Greenville, black sharecroppers were being systematically cheated. They formed a union. When a deputy sheriff fired into a building where they were meeting, the blacks returned fire, killing him. A pogrom commenced, until 500 regular Army troops imposed martial law. Five whites and, officially, 11 blacks died, although the NAACP claimed 200 blacks were killed. No whites were charged, but courts sentenced 54 blacks to prison and 12 to death (the Arkansas Supreme Court blocked the executions); in none of the cases did a jury deliberate more than seven minutes.

Strikes brought violence too. Few unions had struck during the war. In 1919 strikes shook the country. Two in particular seemed dangerous, threatening America with the chaos then wracking Germany, Poland, and Italy. One was a general strike of more than 100 unions in Seattle. The other was a police strike in Boston.

Unions were castigated as un-American. The Chicago Tribune Chicago Tribune warned, "It is only a middling step from Petrograd to Seattle." The warned, "It is only a middling step from Petrograd to Seattle." The Salt Lake City Tribune Salt Lake City Tribune a.s.serted, "Free speech has been carried to the point where it is an absolute menace." The a.s.serted, "Free speech has been carried to the point where it is an absolute menace." The Was.h.i.+ngton Post Was.h.i.+ngton Post wrote: "Silence the incendiary advocates of force.... Bring the law's hand down.... Do it NOW!" wrote: "Silence the incendiary advocates of force.... Bring the law's hand down.... Do it NOW!"

In New York, 400 servicemen ransacked the Socialist paper The Call The Call and beat up everyone there. Six days later Governor Al Smith signed a bill forbidding the display of red flags. and beat up everyone there. Six days later Governor Al Smith signed a bill forbidding the display of red flags.

In Indiana a jury deliberated two minutes and acquitted a man for murdering an immigrant who yelled, "To h.e.l.l with the United States."

In Weirton, West Virginia, police forced 118 immigrants, members of the International Workers of the World, the Wobblies, to kiss the American flag.

Anti-foreign feeling was so strong that it affected even supposedly international Communists: the United States had two Communist parties, one with mostly native-born members, one with a members.h.i.+p 90 percent immigrant.

The American Legion was formed, its const.i.tution stated, "to maintain law and order" and "to foster and perpetuate a one hundred percent Americanism." Within months it had 1 million members, and its commander ordered the organization to "be ready for action at any time...against these extremists who are seeking to overturn a government."

In Centralia, Was.h.i.+ngton, the local American Legion attacked a Wobbly office. Three Legionnaires died. Others later dragged Wesley Everest, a fellow veteran but a Wobbly, from jail. They beat him, cut off his t.e.s.t.i.c.l.es, then cut off his p.e.n.i.s. He begged: "For G.o.d's sake, men, shoot me. Don't let me suffer like this." They hung him from a bridge first, then shot him. The coroner judged it suicide: "He...jumped off with a rope around his neck and then shot himself full of holes."

The left fought back. Bombs exploded outside Attorney General Palmer's Was.h.i.+ngton home, and at the homes of the mayor of Cleveland and several judges. In New York City, a post office employee found sixteen more bombs, addressed to J. P. Morgan, J. D. Rockefeller, Oliver Wendell Holmes, and several senators.

At a cabinet meeting President Wilson turned to his attorney general and said, "Palmer, do not let this country see Red."

Palmer named a young J. Edgar Hoover to run a new Intelligence Division within the Justice Department. Within a few months, Hoover had a card file on 200,000 "radical" organizations. Palmer himself hoped to ride the anti-Red wave all the way to the White House, and said: "I myself am an American and I love to preach my doctrine before 100% Americans because my platform is undiluted Americanism.... Each and every [radical] is a potential murderer or a potential thief.... Out of the sly and crafty eyes of many of them leap cupidity, cruelty, insanity, and crime; from their lopsided faces, sloping brows, and misshapen features may be recognized the unmistakable criminal type."

The paroxysms ended on January 1, 1920, when the Justice Department conducted raids in 33 cities and arrested 6,000 "dangerous aliens." Three guns and no explosives were found. Yet in Hartford, Connecticut, anyone who visited the jailed aliens was also arrested.

LATER THAT YEAR Republican Warren G. Harding won the presidency saying, "America's present need is not heroics but healing; not nostrums but normalcy; not surgery but serenity." Republican Warren G. Harding won the presidency saying, "America's present need is not heroics but healing; not nostrums but normalcy; not surgery but serenity."

A new Congress, seeking to prevent further dilution of 100 percent Americanism, pa.s.sed "emergency" laws restricting immigration. Percy, ever concerned with the labor supply, unsuccessfully urged former Senate colleagues to defeat the bill, arguing that their fears were "fancied and certainly far distant," that the danger of Bolshevism was "not real," that "the crippling of the manpower of this nation is the one thing which will check its prosperity, check it effectually and for an indefinite duration."

But much of the nation wanted to smother change. The Fundamentals The Fundamentals, a book financed by an oil millionaire and espousing a literal interpretation of the Bible, was published, and the World's Christian Fundamentals a.s.sociation was organized. Christian fundamentalism began a war against the teaching of evolution.

Perhaps at no other time in American history, even including the 1960s, did so wide a gap develop between a mainstream culture that clung to its certainties and American intellectuals. Sinclair Lewis mocked Main Street, while F. Scott Fitzgerald declared "all G.o.ds dead, all wars fought, all faiths in man shaken."

The mainstream defended itself. The magazine of the U.S. Chamber of Commerce editorialized: "Dare to be Babbitt!...Good Rotarians live orderly lives, and save money, and go to church, and play golf, and send their children to school.... Would not the world be better with more Babbitts and fewer of those who cry, 'Babbitt!'?"

An article in American Magazine American Magazine simply attacked anything that stood out. Ent.i.tled "Why I Never Hire Brilliant Men," it explained, "[B]usiness and life are built upon successful mediocrity." simply attacked anything that stood out. Ent.i.tled "Why I Never Hire Brilliant Men," it explained, "[B]usiness and life are built upon successful mediocrity."

Normalcy rea.s.sured; sameness was comfortable; to be average meant to be secure.

When Dr. Hiram Wesley Evans, a dentist, became Imperial Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan, he defined himself as "the most average man in America."

D. W. GRIFFITH'S Birth of a Nation Birth of a Nation appeared in 1915. Its epic sweep, its driving narrative, its technical magnificence, and its length revolutionized Hollywood. Before it, movies rarely lasted more than thirty minutes and cost a nickel or less to attend (hence the name "nickelodeon"). appeared in 1915. Its epic sweep, its driving narrative, its technical magnificence, and its length revolutionized Hollywood. Before it, movies rarely lasted more than thirty minutes and cost a nickel or less to attend (hence the name "nickelodeon"). Birth of a Nation Birth of a Nation cost $2 and ran for three hours. Yet in city after city lines stretched for blocks. By the end of World War I, nearly 25 million tickets had been sold. cost $2 and ran for three hours. Yet in city after city lines stretched for blocks. By the end of World War I, nearly 25 million tickets had been sold.

Thomas Dixon had written the novel The Clansman The Clansman upon which the film was based. It portrayed blacks during Reconstruction as virtual jungle beasts who stole from, brutalized, and raped whites. It portrayed the Ku Klux Klan as mythic heroes fighting for decency and honor. He explained: "The real big purpose of my film was to revolutionize northern sentiment by [our] presentation of history.... Every man who comes out of our theaters is a Southern partisan for life." upon which the film was based. It portrayed blacks during Reconstruction as virtual jungle beasts who stole from, brutalized, and raped whites. It portrayed the Ku Klux Klan as mythic heroes fighting for decency and honor. He explained: "The real big purpose of my film was to revolutionize northern sentiment by [our] presentation of history.... Every man who comes out of our theaters is a Southern partisan for life."

The film had many critics and sparked many demonstrations. To counteract the criticism, Dixon showed it at the White House to his college cla.s.smate Woodrow Wilson, telling him the film marked "the launching of the mightiest engine for moulding public opinion in the history of the world." After viewing it, Wilson, a southerner who had segregated the previously integrated federal bureaucracy, said: "It is like writing history with lightning. My only regret is that it is all so terribly true."

A few days before the film's 1915 opening in Atlanta, Colonel William Joseph Simmons climbed Stone Mountain, burned a cross, and announced the rebirth of the Klan.

At the time, Simmons sold members.h.i.+ps in the Woodmen of the World for a living, and the Woodmen-not the military-had made him a colonel. He also belonged to eleven similar groups, and when asked his profession he replied, "I am a fraternalist."

Simmons' sale of members.h.i.+ps in his new Klan went slowly until, in 1920, he signed a contract with Edward Clarke and Mary Elizabeth Tyler, whose Southern Publicity a.s.sociation had raised money for the Red Cross and the Anti-Saloon League of America. The three agreed that new Klan members would pay an initiation fee of $10. Of that, Clarke and Tyler would get $8, out of which they paid $4 to "kleagles," full-time commission salesmen, for each recruit, and small commissions to other Klan officers. Eventually, 1,200 kleagles were on the road. Members.h.i.+p exploded.

The Klan's message combined the binding forces of hyperpatriotism and moralistic Christianity with the excluding forces of disdain for elites, cities, and intellectuals. And of course the Klan preached hatred of Catholics, blacks, foreigners, and Jews. The world, the Klan said, was falling apart, but a crusading Klan would put things right. One Klansman proclaimed: "It is going to drive the bootleggers forever out of this land. It is going to bring clean moving pictures...clean literature...protect homes. It means the return of old-time Southern chivalry and deference to womanhood; it means that 'the married man with an affinity' has no place in our midst."

The message struck home. By the early 1920s at least 3 million Americans belonged to the Invisible Empire; some estimates were as high as 8 million. It had 300,000 members in Ohio, 200,000 in Pennsylvania. It seized control of state governments in Colorado and Indiana, where one scholar estimates between one-quarter and one-third of all native-born white males belonged. It elected the mayors of Portland, Oregon, and Portland, Maine. It recalled the governor of Oklahoma, dominated parts of California, and pa.s.sed a state law in Oregon requiring Catholic children to attend public schools.

There were two Americas now, one accepting and advancing into the insecurity of an uncertain age and one holding back and searching for something to grasp onto. And the two nations were growing further apart. "The world broke in two in 1922 or thereabouts," observed Willa Cather.

In 1922 the Invisible Empire entered the demesne of LeRoy Percy.

CHAPTER ELEVEN.

IN G GREENVILLE the tone of race relations was s.h.i.+fting. Before World War I, when a court outside Was.h.i.+ngton County ordered Nathan Taylor, a black Greenville attorney, to stand in the gallery with black defendants, white Greenville attorneys objected and protected him from a sheriff who tried to beat him. In 1920, Taylor was elected president of the National Equal Rights League. One night four white men tied his hands behind him, rowed him out to vicious whirlpools in the middle of the Mississippi River, and told him he was leaving Greenville one way or another. Taylor moved to Chicago and became the first black there to run, though unsuccessfully, for Congress. the tone of race relations was s.h.i.+fting. Before World War I, when a court outside Was.h.i.+ngton County ordered Nathan Taylor, a black Greenville attorney, to stand in the gallery with black defendants, white Greenville attorneys objected and protected him from a sheriff who tried to beat him. In 1920, Taylor was elected president of the National Equal Rights League. One night four white men tied his hands behind him, rowed him out to vicious whirlpools in the middle of the Mississippi River, and told him he was leaving Greenville one way or another. Taylor moved to Chicago and became the first black there to run, though unsuccessfully, for Congress.

A year after the Taylor incident, a Klan klavern was organized in Was.h.i.+ngton County. Its leaders were ambitious men, men who intended to use the Klan to become bigger men.

Percy had run the county for as long as anyone could remember. Deep into the night the lights often stayed on in his law office in the Weinberg Building, where he sat down with a few men to decide who would serve as county supervisor, or city councilman, or mayor, or state senator. Notably absent from those meetings was LeRoy's son and law partner Will, a war hero and a poet. Usually present were Joe Weinberg, a wealthy Jewish banker, planter Alfred Stone, and Billy Wynn, younger than Will and also a war hero, a comer with his own law firm who also owned a Mississippi River ferry on which pa.s.sengers could play slot machines. Their support nearly always meant victory; their opposition meant defeat. "Percy would almost draft people he wanted to run for office," recalled one man. "I'd walk by and look up and see the lighted window and think, 'They're running the city up there.'"

The men organizing the klavern believed it was time for that to change. By early 1922 the Klan had already taken over the Mississippi hill country, the central part of the state, and penetrated even the Delta counties of Bolivar and Coahoma north of Greenville, Sunflower to the east, Issaquena to the south.

The klavern met for weeks without Percy's knowledge, itself a sign of weakness and change. Years before, nothing of consequence could have been kept secret from him. Then the klavern arranged for Colonel Joseph Camp, one of the most successful of the Klan's organizers, to hold a recruiting rally at the county courthouse.

IN F FEBRUARY 1922, Percy could look out his office window across the levee and see the Mississippi River rising. It had been several years since the last flood, and the river worried him. It took priority over everything-except, just for the moment, the Klan. 1922, Percy could look out his office window across the levee and see the Mississippi River rising. It had been several years since the last flood, and the river worried him. It took priority over everything-except, just for the moment, the Klan.

The Klan was personal. His wife, Camille, was Catholic; her parents had emigrated from France to New Orleans, then come upriver to Greenville after the Civil War. And the kind of men who joined the Klan, men whom his son Will described as "the inflammable, uneducated whites whom the best part of our lives is spent in controlling," had humiliated him once already, during his Senate campaign.

After that Senate campaign, LeRoy had retreated to Was.h.i.+ngton County. Now the Klan was challenging him in his home. His father had kept the Klan out of the county even during Reconstruction. Now, no matter what happened in the rest of Mississippi, even in the rest of the Delta, LeRoy Percy would tolerate no rebellion in Was.h.i.+ngton County. If the Klan spread there, it would shatter the society he had struggled to build.

Immediately upon learning of the planned Klan rally, he called to his office influential men who opposed the organization. They decided that when the recruiter spoke, Percy would answer him, and they would try to pack the rally with Klan opponents. Typically, to a planter scheduled to be out of town on business, Percy sent a special delivery note explaining the plan: "A Ku Klux orator is booked to speak at the courthouse Wednesday evening at seven o'clock.... We concluded to pa.s.s resolutions condemning the Ku Klux Klan.... It would be advisable for you to attend.... It is very essential that we put through the resolution by a large majority."