A Treatise on Physiology and Hygiene Part 21

27. SENSATIONS OF TEMPERATURE AND WEIGHT.--Each of these sensations has been described by the physiologists as a special sense, and they are rival candidates, so to speak, for the position and t.i.tle of the sixth sense. In the sensation of temperature, or the thermal sense, touch bears a part, but the two feelings appear to be distinct. In proof of this, we observe, firstly, that they are not alike intense in the same situations; as, for example, the skin of the face and elbow, where the sense of touch is feeble, is very sensitive to impressions of heat and cold. Secondly, the ability to recognize temperature may be lost by paralysis, while the sensibility of touch remains unaffected. When the skin comes in contact with a very hot substance, the sensation felt is that of pain, not of touch. In like manner, a {188} very cold substance causes pain, not the feeling of cold. So that a red-hot iron, and solid carbonic acid (the temperature of which is 108 below zero), feel alike; and each, if pressed slightly, will produce a blister.

[Sidenote: 28. The muscular sense? State what is said to ill.u.s.trate the subject.]

28. The _muscular sense_, by some considered distinct from touch, gives rise to the sensations of weight, and other forms of external resistance.

That this feeling exists, is shown by the following simple experiment. If the hand be placed flat upon a table, and a somewhat heavy weight be put into it, touch alone is exercised and a feeling of pressure results; but if the hand be raised, a certain amount of muscular effort must be put forth, and thus the sensation of weight is recognized. Through the muscular sense, precision of effort is rendered possible; for by it we learn to adjust the force exerted to the weight of the object to be lifted, moved, or carried.

Without it, all our movements would necessarily become ill-regulated and spasmodic. In cases of disease, where the sensibility of the lower limbs is lost, while power of motion remains, the patient is able to stand erect so long as he can see his limbs; but just as soon as his eyes are closed, he begins to waver, and will fall unless supported.

[Sidenote: 29. The organ of taste? The tongue? Its powers of motion?]

29. THE ORGAN OF TASTE.--The _tongue_ is the special organ of the sense of taste; but the back part of the mouth also possesses this faculty. The tongue is a muscular organ, the muscles composing it being so numerous and interwoven as to give it the freedom and variety of motion which it possesses. It can curve itself upward or downward; it can extend or contract itself; and, with its point, can sweep the cavity of the mouth, in all directions, in the search for scattered particles of food.

[Sidenote: 30. Peculiarities of the tongue? Uses of the papillae?]

30. The upper surface of the tongue is peculiar, being marked by the presence of innumerable _papillae_, some of {189} which are of microscopic size, resembling those that abound in the fingers, and in other parts of the body that have the sense of touch. Others are much larger, and give to the tongue its roughness of feeling and appearance. Through the medium of these papillae, the tongue receives impressions of touch and temperature, as well as taste: indeed, its extremity is fully as delicate, in respect to tactile sensations, as the tips of the fingers themselves. It can recognize the two points of the compa.s.ses when separated not more than one-twenty-fourth of an inch; the back of it is much less sensitive to touch, while at the same time it is more highly sensitive to impressions of taste.

[Sidenote: 31. Resemblance to the parts of the tongue? Powers and functions of the parts?]

31. Each lateral half of the tongue resembles the other in structure, and each receives the same number of nerves--three. One of these regulates motion, the other two are nerves of special sense. One of the latter supplies the front half of the tongue, and is called the _gustatory_ nerve.

This is a branch of the great cranial nerve, called the "fifth pair," which ramifies in all parts of the face. The back of the tongue is endowed with the power of taste through a nerve known as the _glosso-pharyngeal_, because it is distributed both to the tongue and throat. This difference in the nervous supply of the tongue becomes significant, when we learn, as we shall presently, that each part of it perceives a different cla.s.s of flavors.

[Sidenote: 32. Taste? What are the requisites to taste?]

32. THE SENSE OF TASTE.--Taste is the special sense by means of which we discover the savors, or flavoring properties of the substances, which come in contact with the tongue. Mere contact with the surface of the tongue, however, is not sufficient, but contact with the extremities of the nerves of taste within the papillae is required. In order that the substance to be tasted may penetrate the {190} cells covering the nerves, it must either be liquid in form, or readily soluble in the watery secretion of the mouth, the saliva. The tongue must be moist also. If the substance be insoluble, as gla.s.s or sand, or the tongue dry, the sense of taste is not awakened. In sickness, when the tongue is heavily coated, the taste is very defective, or, as is frequently expressed, "nothing tastes aright."

[Sidenote: 33. Portions of the tongue endowed with taste? Where else does the sense lodge? What is stated in respect to sweet and bitter flavors?

Reflex effects mentioned?]

33. All portions of the tongue are not alike endowed with the sense of taste, that function being limited to the posterior third, and to the margin and tip of this organ. The soft palate, also, possesses the sense of taste; hence, an article that has an agreeable flavor may very properly be spoken of as palatable, as is often done. All parts of the tongue do not perceive equally well the same flavors. Thus, the front extremity and margin, which is the portion supplied by the "fifth pair" of nerves, perceives more acutely sweet and sour tastes; but the base of the tongue, supplied by the _glosso-pharyngeal_ nerve, is especially sensitive to salt and bitter substances. The nerve of the front part of the tongue, as before stated, is in active sympathy with those of the face, while the relations of the other nerve are chiefly with the throat and stomach; so that when an intensely sour taste is perceived, the countenance is involuntarily distorted, and is said to wear an acid expression. On the other hand, a very bitter taste affects certain internal organs, and occasions a sensation of nausea, or sickness of the stomach.

[Sidenote: 34. What is stated of the relations of taste with other senses?]

34. RELATIONS OF TASTE WITH OTHER SENSES.--Taste is not a simple sense.

Certain other sensations, as those of touch, temperature, smell, and pain, are blended and confused with it; and certain so-called tastes are really sensations of another kind. Thus an astringent taste, like that of alum, is more properly an astringent feeling, and {191} results from an impression made upon the nerves of touch, that ramify in the tongue. In like manner, the qualities known as smooth, oily, watery, and mealy tastes, are dependent upon these same nerves of touch. A burning or pungent taste is a sensation of pain, having its seat in the tongue and throat. A cooling taste, like that of mint, pertains to that modification of touch called the sense of temperature.

[Sidenote: 35. Its dependence on smell? on sight?]

35. Taste is largely dependent upon the sense of smell. A considerable number of substances, like vanilla, coffee, and garlic, which appear to possess a strong and distinct flavor, have in reality a powerful odor, but only a feeble taste. When the sense of smell is interfered with by holding the nose, it becomes difficult to distinguish between substances of this cla.s.s. The same effect is frequently observed when smell is blunted during an ordinary cold in the head. Sight also contributes to taste. With the eyes closed, food appears comparatively insipid; and a person smoking tobacco in the dark is unable to determine by the taste whether his cigar is lighted or not. Accordingly, it is not a bad plan to close the nose and shut the eyes when about to swallow some disagreeable medicine.

[Sidenote: 36. The chief use of the sense of taste? The position of its organs? The rule as regards wholesome and unwholesome food? Remarks respecting the rule?]

36. INFLUENCE OF EDUCATION ON THE TASTE.--The chief use of the sense of taste appears to be to act as a guide in the selection of proper food.

Hence its organs are properly placed at the entrance of the digestive ca.n.a.l. As a general rule, those articles which gratify the taste are wholesome; while the opposite is true of those which impress it disagreeably. This statement is more exact in reference to the early years of life than to later years, when, by reason of mischievous habits, the sense of taste has become dulled or perverted. The desires of a child are simple; he is fully satisfied with plain and wholesome articles of diet, and must usually "learn to like" those {192} which have a strongly marked flavor. Accordingly, it is far easier at this age to encourage the preference for plain food, and thus establish healthful habits, than later in life to uproot habits of indulgence in stimulating substances, after their ill effects begin to manifest themselves.

[Sidenote: 37. Diversity in tastes of men? How shown? The education of the sense of taste?]

37. The tastes of men present the most singular diversities, partly the result of necessity and partly of habit or education. The Esquimaux like the rank smell of whale oil, which is a kind of food admirably suited to the requirements of their icy climate; and travellers who go from our climate to theirs are not slow to develop a liking for the same articles that the natives themselves enjoy. The sense of taste is rendered very acute by education, as is shown in an especial manner by those who become professional "tasters" of tea and wine.

[Sidenote: 38. Location of the sense of smell? The nose? "Roof of the mouth?"]

38. THE SENSE OF SMELL--THE NASAL CAVITIES.--The sense of smell is located in the delicate mucous membrane which lines the interior of the nose. That prominent feature of the face, the nose, which is merely the front boundary of the true nasal organ, is composed partly of bone and partly of cartilage. The upper part of it is united with the skull by means of a few small bones; to which circ.u.mstance is due its permanence of shape. The lower portion, or tip of the nose, contains several thin pieces of cartilage, which render it flexible and better able to resist the effects of blows and pressure. Behind the nose we find quite a s.p.a.cious chamber, separated from the mouth by the hard palate, forming the "roof of the mouth," and by the soft palate (see Fig. 46); and divided into two cavities by a central part.i.tion running from before backward.

[Sidenote: 39. Cavities of the nose? Obstruction of the pa.s.sage of air through them?]

39. These nasal cavities, const.i.tuting the true beginning of the air-pa.s.sages, extend from the nose backward to the {193} upper opening of the throat, and rise as high as the junction of the nose with the forehead.

The inner wall of each cavity is straight and smooth; but from the outer wall there jut into each cavity three small scroll-like bones. The structure of these bones is very light, and hence they have been called the "spongy" bones of the nose. In this manner, while the extent of surface is greatly increased by the formation of these winding pa.s.sages, the cavities are rendered extremely narrow; so much so, in fact, that a moderate swelling of the mucous membrane which lines them, as from a cold, is sufficient to obstruct the pa.s.sage of air through them.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 46.--SECTION OF THE RIGHT NASAL CAVITY.]

[Sidenote: 40. The special nerve of smell? Its location?]

40. THE NERVE OF SMELL.--The internal surface of the nasal pa.s.sages is covered by a delicate and sensitive mucous membrane. Its surface is quite extensive, following as it does, all the inequalities produced by the curved spongy bones of the nose. The upper portion of it alone is the seat of smell, since that part alone receives branches from the "first pair" of cranial nerves, or the olfactory nerve, which is the special nerve of smell (see Fig. 43). In Fig. 46 is shown the distribution of this nerve, in the form of an intricate network upon the two upper spongy bones. The nerve itself (1) does not issue from the skull, but rests upon a thin bone which separates it from the cavity of the nose; and the branches which proceed from it pa.s.s through this bone by means of numerous small openings. The {194} engraving represents the outer surface of the right nasal cavity; the three wave-like inequalities, upon which the nervous network is spread out, are due to the spongy bones. The left cavity is supplied in the same manner.

[Sidenote: 41. Branches of the "fifth pair" of nerves? Nasal mucus? Birds?]

41. The nerves which ramify over the lower part of the membrane, and which endow it with sensibility to touch and pain, are branches of the "fifth pair" of nerves. An irritation applied to the parts where this nerve is distributed occasions sneezing, that is, a spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm; the object of which is the expulsion of the irritating cause.

The manner in which the olfactory nerve-fibres terminate is peculiar.

Unlike the extremities of other nerves, which are covered in by a greater or less thickness of tissue, these come directly to the surface of the mucous membrane, and thus come into very close contact with the odorous particles that are carried along by the respired air. The surface is at all times kept in a moist condition by an abundant flow of nasal mucus; otherwise it would become dry, hard, and insensitive from the continual pa.s.sage of air to and fro in breathing. Birds, which respire more actively than men, have a special gland, for secreting a lubricating fluid, located in the air-pa.s.sages of the head.

[Sidenote: 42. Smell? Touch? Taste? Design of smell? Invisible and gaseous particles? The extreme fineness of the particles? Musk? In other cases?]

42. THE USES OF THE SENSE OF SMELL.--Smell is the special sense which enables us to appreciate odors. Touch, as we have seen, is largely concerned with solid bodies; and taste, with fluids, or with solids in solution. Smell, on the other hand, is designed to afford us information in reference to substances in a volatile or gaseous form. Invisible and subtile particles emanate from odorous bodies, and are brought by the respired air in contact with the terminal filaments of the olfactory nerve, upon which an agreeable or disagreeable impression is produced. {195} The fineness of the particles that const.i.tute odors is often so extreme, that they elude all attempts to measure or weigh them. A piece of musk, for instance, may be kept for several years, constantly emitting perfume, without any appreciable loss of weight. In other cases, a loss of substance is perceptible, such as the essential oils, which enter into the composition of the ordinary perfumes.

[Sidenote: 43. Aid given by smell? The highest use of the sense? Explain the manner.]

43. Smell, like taste, aids us in the choice of proper food, leading us to reject such articles as have a rank or putrid odor, and which are, as a rule, unfit to be eaten. The highest usefulness of this sense, however, consists in the protection it affords to the organs of respiration.

Stationed at the gateways of the air-pa.s.sages, it examines the current of air as it enters, and warns us of the presence of noxious gases, and of other and generally invisible enemies to health. Not all dangerous vapors are offensive, but almost all offensive vapors are unfit to be breathed. A number of small stiff hairs grow from the margin of the nostrils to prevent the entrance of dust and other atmospheric impurities, which would be alike injurious to the olfactory mucous membrane and to the lungs. The benevolent design of the Maker of our bodies may be observed in all parts of their mechanism; but, probably, in none is it more clearly displayed than in connection with the sense of smell.

[Sidenote: 44. Sense of smell in the inferior animals? How, and in what cases, ill.u.s.trated?]

44. The sense of smell is developed in a remarkable degree in certain of the inferior animals, and is especially acute in reference to the peculiar emanations that appear to characterize the different animals. The lion and other carnivorous beasts scent their prey from a great distance; and the fox-hound is able to track the fox through thickets and over open country for many miles; while the timid, helpless herbivora, such as the deer and sheep, find in the {196} sense of smell a means of protection against their natural enemies, of whose approach they are in this manner warned. By training this sense in the dog, and making it subservient to his use, man is able to hunt with success certain shy and very fleet animals, which otherwise he could but seldom approach. Among men, individuals differ greatly in respect to the development of this sense; and especially in certain savage tribes it is found to be extremely delicate. Humboldt states that the natives of Peru can, by this sense, distinguish in the dark between persons of different races.

[Sidenote: 45. What is sight? What information does it furnish? Composite visual sensations?]

45. THE SENSE OF SIGHT.--Sight, or Vision, is the special sense by means of which we appreciate the color, form, size, distance, and other physical properties of the objects of external nature. Primarily, this sense furnishes us with information concerning the different shades of color and the different degrees of brightness: these are the simple sensations of sight, such as the yellowness and glitter of a gold coin. In addition to these, there are composite visual sensations, produced by the joint action of the other senses and by the use of the memory and judgment; such as, in the case of the coin, its roundness, solidity, size, its distance and direction from us. So that many of our sensations, commonly considered as due to sight, are in reality the results of intellectual processes which take place instantaneously and unconsciously.

[Sidenote: 46. Comparison between sight and hearing? Relative capacity of deaf and blind?]

46. This faculty not only has value in the practical every-day affairs of life, but it contributes so largely to the culture of the intellect and to our higher forms of pleasure, that some writers are disposed to rate it as the first and most valuable of the senses. Others, however, maintain that the sense of hearing does not yield in importance to that of sight; and they cite in support of their position {197} the fact that the blind are commonly cheerful and gay, while the deaf are inclined to be morose and melancholy. In respect to the relative capacity for receiving education in the deaf and blind, it is found that the former learn more quickly, but their attainments are not profound; while the blind acquire more slowly, but are able to study more thoroughly.

[Sidenote: 47. Sight, unlike the other senses? In the case of the stars?]

47. LIGHT.--THE OPTIC NERVE.--Unlike the senses previously considered--touch, taste, and smell--sight does not bring us into immediate contact with the bodies that are examined; but, by it, we perceive the existence and qualities of objects that are at a greater or less distance from us. In the case of the stars, the distance is incalculable, while the book we read is removed but a few inches. Light is the agent which gives to this sense its wide range. The nature of this mysterious force is not known, and it is not here to be discussed; since its study belongs more properly to the province of natural philosophy.

[Sidenote: 48. The undulatory theory of light? What does the theory suppose?]

48. It is sufficient, in this connection, to state that the theory of light now generally accepted, and which best explains the facts of optics, is that known as the undulatory theory. This theory supposes that there exists an intangible, elastic medium, which fills all s.p.a.ce, and penetrates all transparent substances, and which is thrown into exceedingly rapid undulations or waves, by the sun and every other luminous body; the undulations being propagated with extreme rapidity, and moving not less than 186,000 miles in a second.

[Sidenote: 49. The sensation of light? Optic nerve?]