A Treatise on Physiology and Hygiene Part 22

49. These waves are thought to produce in the eye the sensation of light, in the same manner as the sonorous vibrations of the air produce in the ear the sensation of sound. That part of the eye which is sensitive to these waves is the expansion of the _optic nerve_. It is sensitive {198} to no other impression than that of light, and it is the only nerve which is acted upon by this agent. The optic nerve, also called the "second pair" of cranial nerves, is the means of communication between the eye and the brain.

[Sidenote: 50. The two nerves const.i.tuting the pair of nerves?]

50. The two nerves const.i.tuting the pair, arise from ganglia lying at the base of the cerebrum, one of them on each side; from which points they advance to the eyes, being united together in the middle of their course in the form of the letter X (Fig. 43--2). By this union the two eyes are enabled to act harmoniously, and in some respects to serve as a double organ. And by reason of this same intimate nervous communication, when serious disease affects one eye, the fellow-eye is extremely liable to become the seat of _sympathetic_ inflammation; and this, if neglected, almost certainly results in hopeless blindness.

[Sidenote: 51. Why is the eye called the "window of the soul?" Why, the subject of enthusiastic study?]

51. THE ORGAN OF SIGHT.--THE EYE.--The proximity of the eye to the brain, and the important part it performs in giving expression to the emotions, have given it the name of "the window of the soul." The exceeding beauty of its external parts, and the high value of its function, have long made this organ the subject of enthusiastic study. It is chiefly within the last twenty years, however, that this study has been successful and fruitful of practical results. Several ingenious instruments have been invented for the examination of the eye in health and disease, and new operations have been devised for the relief of blindness and of impaired vision. As a result, it is now a well-marked fact that, in civilized lands, the number of those who suffer from loss of sight is proportionally much less than in countries where science is less known and cultivated.

[Sidenote: 52. The most obvious fact? The consequence? The next thing noticed? Its range of view? Of what does the organ of vision consist?]

52. The most obvious fact in respect to the apparatus of {199} sight is that there are two eyes, which may either act together as one, and be fixed upon one object, or one eye may be used independently of the other. In consequence of this arrangement the loss of one eye does not necessitate blindness, and, in fact, it not infrequently happens that the sight of one eye may be long impaired or lost before the fact is discovered. We next notice that it is placed at the most elevated part of the body, in front, and near the brain. It also commands a wide range of view, being itself moved with great rapidity, and being further aided by the free motion of the head and neck. The organ of vision consists essentially of two parts: the optical instrument itself--the eyeball--and its enveloping parts, or the case in which the instrument is kept free from harm. The latter, which are external, and which we shall first consider, are chiefly the _Orbits_, the _Eyelids_, and the apparatus for the _Tears_.

[Sidenote: 53. The protection of the eyeball against injury? The overhanging brow? The opening for the optic nerve?]

53. THE ORBITS.--The eyeball, which is a delicate organ, is well defended against external injury within the orbits or bony sockets of the head.

These are deep conical hollows, bounded in part by the bones of the skull, and in part by those of the nose and cheek. The orbit juts out beyond the most exposed portion of the eyeball, as may be seen by laying a book over the eye, when it will be found that no part of the eyeball, unless it be very prominent, will be touched by the book; so that the only direction in which an injury is liable to be received is immediately in front of the eye. The overhanging brow is itself covered by a layer of thick skin, studded with short, stout hairs, which are so bent as to prevent the perspiration from running into the eye and obscuring vision. Through a hole in the bottom of the orbit, the nerve of sight pa.s.ses outward from the brain. The orbit also contains a considerable amount of a fatty tissue, upon which, as upon an elastic cus.h.i.+on, the eye rests. {200}

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 47.--FRONT VIEW OF RIGHT EYE. (Natural Size.)

1. The Lachrymal, or tear gland, lying beneath the upper eyelid.

2. The Nasal Duct is shown by the dotted line. The * marks the orifice in the lower lid.

The central black spot is the _pupil_; surrounding it is the _iris_; and the triangular white s.p.a.ces are the visible portion of the _sclerotic_.]

[Sidenote: 54. What are the eyelids? The upper lid? The lower one? The mucous membrane of the eye?]

54. THE EYELIDS.--The eyelids are two movable curtains, or folds, which, when shut, cover the front part of the orbit, and hide the eye from view.

The upper lid is the larger, has a curved margin, and moves freely, while the lower lid is comparatively short and straight, and has but a slight degree of motion (Fig. 47). Skin covers the exterior of the lids, while a fine mucous membrane lines their inner surface, and is likewise spread out over the entire front of the eyeball. This membrane, which is called the _Conjunctiva_, is highly sensitive, and thus plays an important part in protecting the eye against the lodgment of sand, ashes, chaff, and other foreign particles that are blown about in the air. This sensitive membrane will not endure the presence of these particles. If any find access, it causes a constant winking, a flow of tears, and other signs of irritation, until it is removed.

[Sidenote: 55. The eyelashes? The little points within the line of the lashes? Of what use are these glands?]

55. The long, silky eyelashes, which garnish the edges of the lids, act like a sieve to prevent the entry of dust and the like; and together with the lids, they regulate the amount of light which is permitted to enter the eye, so that it is s.h.i.+elded from a sudden flood or glare of light. The little points seen in the figure just within the line of the lashes, especially on the lower lid, represent the mouths of numerous little sebaceous glands (Fig. 48, D,D), such as are always {201} found in the neighborhood of hairs. These glands supply a thick, oily material which greases the edges of the lids and prevents their adhering together, and likewise prevents the overflow of the tears upon the cheek.

[Sidenote: 56. The location of the lachrymal gland? The use of the gland?]

56. THE LACHRYMAL FLUID, OR THE TEARS.--Just within the outer part of the bony arch of the brow, where the bone may be felt to be sharper than in other positions, is lodged a little organ called the lachrymal gland, the situation of which is indicated in Fig. 47, 1. This is the gland whence flows the watery secretion, commonly called the _tears_, which is designed to perform an exceedingly important duty in lubricating the lids, and in keeping the exposed surface of the eyeball moist and transparent. For, without this or some similar liquid, the front of the eye would speedily become dry and l.u.s.treless, like that of a fish which has been removed from the water: the simple exposure of the eye to the air would then suffice to destroy vision.

[Sidenote: 57. When does the secretion of the tears occur? The secretion not used for the eye? Location of the nasal duct? Its use? The overflow of tears in old people?]

57. This secretion of the tears takes place at all times, during the night as well as the day; but it is seldom noticed, except when under the influence of some strong mental emotion, whether of sorrow or happiness, it is poured forth in excess, so as to overflow the lids. Strong light or a rapid breeze will, among many other causes, excite the flow of the tears.

That portion of this secretion which is not used in moistening the eye is carried off into the nose by a ca.n.a.l situated near the inner angle of the eye, called the _nasal duct_. This duct is shown in Fig. 47, 2, and is connected with each lid by delicate tubes, which are indicated by dotted lines in the figure; the asterisk marks the little opening in the lower lid, by which the tears enter the nasal duct. By gently turning the inner part of that lid downward, and looking in a mirror, {202} this small "lachrymal point" may be seen in your own eye. In old people, these points become everted, and do not conduct the tears to the nasal cavity, so that they are inconvenienced by an overflow of tears upon the face.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 48.--VERTICAL SECTION OF THE EYE. (Enlarged.)

C, The Cornea. A, The Aqueous Humor. I, The Iris. P, The Pupil. L, The Crystalline Lens. H, The Ligament of the Lens. B, The Ciliary Process.

V, The Cavity containing the Vitreous Humor. S, The Sclerotic. Ch, The Choroid. R, The Retina. N, The Optic Nerve. DD, The Eyelids. X, The Levator Muscle of the Upper Lid. Y, The Upper Straight Muscle of the Eye. Z, The Lower Straight Muscle.]

[Sidenote: 58. The watery fluid pa.s.sing over the eyeball? Design of the arrangement? Winking?]

58. Thus we observe that the gland which forms the tears is placed at the outer part of the eye, while their means of exit is at the inner angle of the eye; which fact renders it necessary that this watery fluid shall pa.s.s over the surface of the eyeball before it can escape. This arrangement cannot be accidental, but evinces design, for it thus secures the perfect lubrication of the surface of the eye, and cleanses it from the smaller particles of dust {203} which may enter it, in spite of the vigilance of the lids and lashes. The act of winking, which is generally unconsciously performed, and which takes place six or more times in a minute, a.s.sists this pa.s.sage of the tears across the eye, and is especially frequent when the secretion is most abundant.

[Sidenote: 59. Describe the shape of the eyeball. Its structure.]

59. THE EYEBALL.--The remarkable optical instrument called the eyeball, or the globe of the eye, upon which sight depends, is, as the name indicates, spherical in shape. It is not a perfect sphere, since the front part projects somewhat beyond the rest, and at the posterior part the optic nerve (Fig. 48, N) is united to it, resembling the junction of the stem with a fruit. In its long diameter, that is, the horizontal or from side to side, it measures a little more than an inch; in other directions it is rather less than an inch. In structure, the ball of the eye is firm, and its tense round contour may in part be felt by pressing the fingers over the closed lids.

[Sidenote: 60. Of what is the eyeball composed? State how.]

60. The eyeball is composed chiefly of three internal, transparent media, called _humors_; and three investing coats, or _tunics_. The former are the _aqueous humor_, Fig. 48, A, the _crystalline lens_ L, and the _vitreous humor_ V. Of these the lens alone is solid. The three coats of the eyeball are called the _sclerotic_ S, the _choroid_ CH, and the _retina_ R. This arrangement exists in respect to five-sixths of the globe of the eye, but in the anterior one-sixth, these coats are replaced by the _cornea_ C, which is thin and transparent, so that the rays of light pa.s.s freely through it, as through a clear window-pane.

[Sidenote: 61. The shape of the cornea? Its structure? The "white of the eye?"]

61. In shape, the cornea is circular and prominent, resembling a miniature watch-gla.s.s, about 1/25 of an inch thick. In structure, it resembles horn (as the name signifies), or the nail of the finger, and is dest.i.tute of {204} blood-vessels. The _Sclerotic_ (from _scleros_, hard) is composed of dense, white fibrous tissue, and gives to the eyeball its firmness of figure and its white color; in front, it const.i.tutes the part commonly called "the white of the eye." It is one of the strongest tissues in the body; it possesses very few vessels, and is not very sensitive. It affords protection to the extremely delicate interior parts of the eye; and the little muscles which effect its movements are inserted into the sclerotic a short distance behind the cornea (see Fig. 48, Y, Z). It is perforated posteriorly to admit the optic nerve.

[Sidenote: 62. The second or middle coat of the eyeball? Its dark color?]

62. The _Choroid_ is the second or middle coat of the eyeball, and lies closely attached to the inner surface of the sclerotic. Unlike the latter tunic, its structure is soft and tender, it is dark in color, and possesses a great abundance of blood-vessels. Its dark color is due to a layer of dark brown or chocolate-colored cells spread out over its inner surface.

This dark layer serves to absorb the rays of light after they have traversed the transparent structures in front of it; if the rays were reflected from side to side within the eye, instead of being thus absorbed, confused vision would result from the mult.i.tude of images which would be impressed upon the optic nerve.

[Sidenote: 63. Similar mechanism in microscopes? The albinos? White rabbits?]

63. This mechanism has been unconsciously imitated by the opticians, who, when they make a microscope or telescope, take care that the interior of its tube shall be coated with a thick layer of black paint or lamp-black; for without it, a clear delineation of the object to be viewed is impossible. The albinos, in whom these dark cells of the choroid are wanting, have imperfect vision, especially in the daytime and in strong lights. The dark cells are also wanting in white rabbits, and other animals that have red or pink eyes; their vision appears to be imperfect in the presence of a bright light. {205}

[Sidenote: 64. What is the iris? Its construction? How is the size of the pupil regulated?]

64. THE IRIS.--Continuous with the choroid, in the front part of the globe of the eye, is a thin, circular curtain, which occasions the brown, blue, or gray color of the eye in different individuals. On account of the varieties of its color, this membrane has received the name _Iris_, which is the Greek word for "rainbow" (see Fig. 48, I). A front view of it is shown in Fig. 47. The iris is pierced in its centre by a round opening, called the _pupil_ (P), which is constantly varying in size. In olden times it was spoken of as the "apple of the eye." The hinder surface of the iris, except in albinos, has a layer of dark coloring matter resembling that of the choroid. The iris is a muscular organ, and contains two distinct sets of fibres; one of which is circular, while the other radiates outward from the pupil. The action of these sets of fibres regulates the size of the pupil; for when the circular set acts, the pupil contracts, and when the other set acts, the opening expands. Their action is involuntary, and depends on the reflex system of nerves, which causes the contraction of the pupil when a strong light falls upon the eye, and its expansion when the illumination is feeble.

[Sidenote: 65. The admission of light to the eye? The action of the iris under different circ.u.mstances? The l.u.s.tre of the eye, how affected in youth and old age?]

65. The iris, accordingly, serves a very useful purpose in regulating the admission of light to the eye. It, however, does not act instantaneously; and hence, when we pa.s.s quickly from a dark room into the bright sunlight, the vision is at first confused by the glare of light, but as soon as the pupil contracts, the ability to see becomes perfect. On the other hand, when we enter a dark apartment, such as a cellar, for a short time we can see nothing clearly; but as soon as the pupil expands and admits more light, we are enabled to distinguish the surrounding objects. Animals of the cat species, and others which prowl around after nightfall, are enabled to see in the dark by {206} having the iris very dilatable. The size of the pupil affects the l.u.s.tre of the eye. When it is large, as it usually is during youth, the eye appears clear and brilliant; while in old age the pupil is small and the eye is dull. The brilliancy of the eye is in part, at least, dependent upon the reflection of light from the front surface of the crystalline lens.

[Sidenote: 66. Means used to increase the beauty of the eye? The injurious consequences?]

66. Certain poisonous vegetables have the property of causing the pupil to dilate, and have been used in small doses to increase the beauty of the eye. One of these drugs has been so largely used by the ladies for this purpose, that it has received the name _belladonna_, from the Italian words meaning "beautiful lady." This hazardous practice has resulted more than once in the death of the person desiring thus to increase her personal attraction. The common English name for belladonna is "deadly nightshade."

(In the diagram on page 214 the shape and relations of the iris are more accurately shown than in the figure referred to above.)

[Sidenote: 67. What part does the retina const.i.tute? How formed? Its texture? Color? Sensitiveness?]

67. THE RETINA const.i.tutes the third and inner coat of the globe of the eye. This, the important part of the eye that is sensitive to light, is a kind of nervous membrane, formed by the expansion of the ultimate filaments of the optic nerve. Its texture is soft, smooth, and very thin; it is translucent and of an opaline, or grayish-white color. It is sensitive to light alone; and if any form of mechanical irritation be applied to it, the sensations of touch and pain are not experienced, but flashes of fire, sparks, and other luminous appearances are perceived. Thus an electric shock given to the eye-ball occasions a flash of light; and a sudden fall, or a blow upon the eye, is often apparently accompanied by the vision of "stars."

[Sidenote: 68. Specific energy of the optic nerve? Trial in Germany?]

68. These phenomena are due to what is termed the {207} "specific energy"

of the optic nerve, which nerve, in common with the other nerves of special sense, obeys a general law of nature, which requires that, whenever one of these nerves is stimulated, it shall respond with the sensation peculiar to itself. These flashes of retinal light have no power to illuminate external objects, although the opposite of this statement has been maintained. On the occasion of a remarkable trial in Germany, it was claimed by a person who had been severely a.s.saulted on a very dark night, that the flashes of light caused by repeated blows upon the head enabled him to see with sufficient distinctness to recognize his a.s.sailant. But the evidence of scientific men entirely refuted this claim, by p.r.o.nouncing that the eye, under the circ.u.mstances named, was incapacitated for vision. Too intense light occasions a feeling of pain, but it is of a peculiar kind, and is termed "dazzling."

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 49.]