International Law Part 12

-- 56. Jurisdiction over Persons--Nationality

Under the discussion of jurisdiction of the state over persons comes the question of nationality. Nationality involves the reciprocal relations of allegiance and protection on the part of the person and state. It corresponds to citizens.h.i.+p in the broad sense of that term. In general a state may exercise jurisdiction over its own subjects or citizens as it will, and the relations of a state to its citizens are matters of munic.i.p.al law only.

A state exercises jurisdiction over all persons within its limits except certain officers of other states by exterritoriality ent.i.tled to exemption from local jurisdiction. In some of the Eastern states citizens of Western states are by treaty exempt from certain local laws. This last exemption may properly be said to be by local law, as a treaty becomes a part of the state law for the subjects upon which it touches.

The jurisdiction also varies with the status of the person as regards his relations to other states. The conflict of laws in regard to nationality forms an important part of _private international law_.

-- 57. Jurisdiction over Natural-born Subjects

Children born within a state of which the parents are citizens are natural-born subjects of that state. Such persons are fully under the local jurisdiction.

Foundlings, because of the uncertainty of parentage, are considered subjects of the state in which they are found.

Illegitimate children take the nationality of the mother, provided they are born in the state of which the mother is subject.

The great bulk of the population of all states, except those most recently founded, is natural-born, and therefore fully under local jurisdiction.

-- 58. Foreign-born Subjects

It is the general principle that each state determines citizens.h.i.+p by its own laws. The status of persons born abroad may become very uncertain by virtue of the conflict of laws of the state of which one or both the parents are citizens and the state in which the child is born.

These laws in regard to children born to parents while sojourning in foreign countries may be cla.s.sified as follows:--

(_a_) The child born in the foreign country is a subject of the state of which his parents are citizens. That the child inherits the nationality of his father is a common maxim known as _jus sanguinis_. The United States law says, "All children heretofore born or hereafter born out of the limits and jurisdiction of the United States, whose fathers were or may be at the time of their birth citizens thereof, are declared to be citizens of the United States; but the rights of citizens.h.i.+p shall not descend to children whose fathers never resided in the United States."[156] The _jus sanguinis_ is followed by Austria,[157]

Germany,[158] Hungary,[159] Sweden,[160] Switzerland,[161] and by some of the smaller European states.

(_b_) Certain states follow the rule of _jus soli_, maintaining that the place of birth determines the nationality. Great Britain, by Article 4, of the Act of May 12, 1870, adopts this principle. By the Fourteenth Amendment of the Const.i.tution of the United States, "All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside." The laws of the United States have given rise to many questions.[162] Portugal and most of the South American states follow the _jus soli_.

(_c_) Other states follow sometimes the _jus sanguinis_, sometimes _jus soli_, and sometimes modifications of these laws. The laws of Belgium and Spain regard the child of an alien as an alien, though on attaining majority the child may choose the citizens.h.i.+p of the country of his birth. The French laws of June 26-28, 1889, and July 22, 1893, consider as subjects the children born abroad to French citizens, also the children of foreigners born in France, unless these children within one year after attaining majority elect the nationality of their parents.

Most states allow the descendants born to foreigners sojourning within their limits to elect their allegiance on attaining majority.

Switzerland, however, strongly maintains the _jus sanguinis_, without according any choice to the descendants born to foreigners within her limits, or to her own subjects born abroad except by formal renunciation of citizens.h.i.+p. Thus the child of a citizen of Switzerland born in France would be by French law a citizen of France, and by Swiss law a citizen of Switzerland.

By the law of Germany, a citizen of Germany sojourning more than ten years abroad without registration at his consulate loses his German citizens.h.i.+p, without necessarily acquiring the citizens.h.i.+p of the country of his sojourn, thereby becoming _heimatlos_, or a "man without a country."

At the present time the laws in regard to descendants born to parents sojourning in a foreign state show the widest diversity and give rise to unfortunate complications.[163]

-- 59. Jurisdiction by Virtue of Acquired Nationality

The jurisdiction of a state extends to those who voluntarily acquire its citizens.h.i.+p.

(_a_) A woman in most states =by marriage= acquires the nationality of her husband. In some of the South American states the husband acquires the citizens.h.i.+p of his wife. By the law of Belgium, Aug. 6, 1881, and by the law of France, June 26, 1889, it was made easier for foreigners who had married women natives of those states to acquire Belgian or French nationality respectively. The United States law, while holding that a woman marrying a citizen of the United States acquires his nationality, does not hold that an American woman on marrying a foreigner thereby becomes expatriated, unless she takes up her residence in her husband's state.[164]

(_b_) A state may acquire jurisdiction over persons =by naturalization=, which is an act of sovereignty by which a foreigner is admitted to citizens.h.i.+p in another state. The method of naturalization is in accord with local law and varies greatly in different states.[165] The law of the United States prescribes that Congress has power "to establish an uniform rule of naturalization."[166] The foreigner desiring naturalization in the United States must declare on oath before a court after three years of residence in this country, his intent to become a citizen, and, after he has remained here two years longer he must take an oath of allegiance to the United States and of renunciation of his former country. An alien who has resided in the United States the three years next preceding the attaining of his majority and who continues to reside in this country at the time of his application, may, after reaching twenty-one years of age, and after residing here five years including the three years of minority, become a citizen by making a declaration at the time of admission.[167]

(_c_) A state may acquire jurisdiction over persons =by annexation of the territory= upon which they reside. The territory may be acquired by cession, exchange, purchase, conquest, etc. The conditions of the transfer of allegiance from the state formerly possessing the territory is usually fixed by the treaty. This transfer is known as collective naturalization.

Ordinarily a right to choose the allegiance to either state is left to the inhabitants of an annexed territory. Removal from the new jurisdiction is usually required if the inhabitant does not choose to change his allegiance. If the inhabitant does not take any action, it is held that he thereby tacitly transfers his allegiance unless there are special treaty provisions.[168]

(_d_) =The effect of naturalization=, whatever the method, is to make the person a citizen of the state into which he is admitted, and over him that state has jurisdiction in all places outside the jurisdiction of the state whose allegiance he has forsworn.

There is conflict of the laws determining the relations to his native state of a person who has renounced his allegiance to one state by naturalization in another state. The general law is, that he becomes ent.i.tled to all the privileges of a subject of the state of his new allegiance, except that when he is within his first state he becomes liable for the performance of any obligation which he may have incurred prior to his naturalization.[169]

A state may determine what conditions must be fulfilled in order to const.i.tute a valid severance of allegiance. Laws are diverse upon this subject. Many states have maintained, and some still maintain, that allegiance is inalienable.[170] England formally maintained this principle till 1870, and her attempts to enforce the principle brought on the War of 1812 with the United States.

In certain countries, as in the United States and Switzerland, minor children are held to follow the allegiance of their father in case of naturalization. The French law claims that the minor child's nationality is that of his birthplace. The subject has been determined in some instances by treaty stipulation, yet must be considered, like many questions of naturalization, as unsettled.

Many states distinguish in law and more in practice between that naturalization which carries with it protection of the state and allegiance of the subject (_naturalisation ordinaire_) and that naturalization which carries full political privileges (_grande naturalisation_).

(_e_) =Incomplete naturalization.= The fact that a person has taken the preliminary steps toward acquiring the nationality of a foreign state, by making a declaration of his intention or otherwise, may give the state to which the person has a.s.sumed an inchoate allegiance the right of protection of the declarant against third states,[171] though not necessarily against the native state of the declarant.[172] Of the privileges to be accorded to one who has declared his intention to become a citizen of the United States, Secretary Marcy said, "The declaration, indeed, is _prima facie_ evidence that the person who made it was, at its date, domiciled in the United States, and ent.i.tled thereby, though not to all, to certain rights of a citizen, and to much more consideration when abroad than is due to one who has never been in our country; but the declarant, not being a citizen under our laws, even while domiciled here, cannot enjoy all the rights of citizens.h.i.+p either here or abroad;"[173] and Mr. Marcy also says of the papers proving domicile, "And to this simple certificate ... the European authorities are at liberty to pay such respect as they think proper."[174]

In 1853 a case arose in which the United States affirmed: "It is a maxim of international law that domicile confers national character; ...

international law looks only to the national character in determining what country has the right to protect. If a person goes from this country abroad, with the nationality of the United States, this law enjoins upon other nations to respect him, in regard to protection, as an American citizen."[175] This statement was made in support of the position a.s.sumed by the United States in the case of one Martin Koszta.

Koszta, a Hungarian refugee of 1848-1849, went to Turkey, was imprisoned, later was released on condition of leaving the country, went to the United States, declared his intention to become a citizen, and in 1853 returned to Turkey. He went into business at Smyrna, obtained there a traveling pa.s.s certifying that he was under protection of the United States, was seized, thrown into the sea by persons employed by the Austrian consulate, and was picked up by an Austrian man-of-war, _Hussar_. The consul of the United States remonstrated, but the captain of the _Hussar_ held Koszta. The charge d'affaires requested the aid of a United States man-of-war, whose captain demanded Koszta's release. To avoid conflict in the port the mediation of the French consul was accepted, and Koszta was intrusted, pending settlement of claims, to the French consul. Finally Koszta was allowed to return to the United States, though Austria maintained her right to proceed against him if he returned to Turkey. The United States in this case undoubtedly took an extreme position in its claim of jurisdiction.

By an act of March 3, 1863, the United States declared that those who had taken the preliminary oath of intention to become citizens were liable to military service. Upon protest by foreign nations against this act of Congress, the President, by proclamation, announced that, as it had been claimed that "such persons, under treaties or the law of nations, retain a right to renounce that purpose, and to forego the privileges of citizens.h.i.+p and residence within the United States, under the obligations imposed by the aforesaid act of Congress,"[176] to avoid all misapprehension, the plea of alienage would be accepted for sixty-five days, during which time such persons as had only declared their intention to become citizens might depart.

The position in the Koszta case, where the claim to the protection of the United States was made when the inchoate citizen was in trouble, and the claim of the inchoate citizens to renounce their allegiance when the state was in difficulties, show some of the problems to which the diverse laws and practices in regard to naturalization have given rise.

The munic.i.p.al laws of some of the local states of the United States admit to all political privileges of the local state those who have taken the first steps toward naturalization. It is generally conceded that such as have exercised the privileges of full citizens can properly be held to the obligations of full citizens, as was declared in the above proclamation.

The inconsistencies in regard to jurisdiction over those naturalized or incompletely naturalized are gradually yielding to treaty provisions which distinctly determine the position of such persons.

-- 60. Jurisdiction over Aliens

Citizens of one state, when sojourning in a foreign state, have a dual relations.h.i.+p by which they may claim certain privileges, both from their native state and from the foreign state.

(_a_) The native state naturally has =jurisdiction= of a qualified sort =over= its =subjects= even when they are =in a foreign state=.

(1) The right to make _emigration laws_ may lead to restrictions binding in a foreign state. A state may banish its subjects. No other state is obliged to receive them, however.

(2) A state may _recall its citizens for special reasons_, as in the case of Greece in 1897, when Greek citizens were recalled for military service.

(3) There is much difference of opinion upon the question of _penal jurisdiction_ of the native state over its subjects who have committed crimes in a foreign state. In general American and English authorities agree that penal law is territorial. Some of the continental authorities take the view that a citizen on his return may be punished for crimes committed in a foreign state. The English law takes this position in certain crimes, as treason, bigamy, and premeditated murder. Usually a crime committed upon a vessel in a foreign harbor is held as within the jurisdiction of the state of the vessel's registry.

(4) A state may interfere to _protect its subjects_ in a foreign state, thus extending its authority in their behalf. This has been frequently done to protect Western sojourners in Eastern states, _e.g._ the demands of Germany, in 1898, for concessions from China on account of injuries to missionaries. These demands, accompanied by a naval demonstration, resulted in the cession of Kaio-Chau.

(_b_) The =jurisdiction= of a =state over aliens within its territory= is very extensive.

(1) The absolute right of _exclusion_ of all foreigners would hardly be maintained by any civilized state, though it could be deduced from the doctrine of sovereignty. Whether justly or not, j.a.pan and China have been compelled by force to cede certain rights to states demanding admission for their citizens.

(2) The right of _expulsion_ is, however, generally maintained. This right should, however, be exercised most carefully, as the fact of admission carries with it some obligation on the part of the admitting state.

(3) The right to _conditional admission_ is generally allowed, as seen in laws in regard to immigration.