An Illustrated History of Ireland from AD 400 to 1800 Part 12

Yet we should be sorry to charge the Established Church or its clergy, some of whom are most earnest and hard-working men, with the sins of their paris.h.i.+oners. The following extract from St. Columba's magnificent Hymn, will show what the early Irish saints thought of pagan superst.i.tions:

"I adore not the voice of birds, Nor sneezing, nor lots in this world, Nor a boy, nor chance, nor woman: My Druid is Christ, the Son of G.o.d; Christ, Son of Mary, the great Abbot, The Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost."

[138] _Aengus_.--

"Died the branch, the spreading tree of gold, Aenghus the laudable."

--Four Masters, p. 153. The branches of this tree have indeed spread far and wide, and the four great families mentioned above have increased and multiplied in all parts of the world.

[139] _Year_ 503.--The Four Masters give the date 498, which O'Donovan corrects both in the text and in a note.

[140] _Broccan's Hymn_.--This Hymn was written about A.D. 510. See the translation in Mr. Whitley Stokes' _Goidilica_, Calcutta, 1866.

Privately printed.

[141] _Saints_.--St. Patrick, St. Columba, and St. Brigid. See Reeves'

_Ecc. Anti. of Down and Connor_, p. 225, and Giraldus Cambrensis, d. 3, cap. 18.

[142] _Domhnach Airgid_.--See O'Curry, _MS. Materials_, p. 321, for a complete verification of the authenticity of this relic. The Tripart.i.te Life of St. Patrick mentions the gift of this relic by the saint to _St.

MacCarthainn_. Dr. Petrie concludes that the copy of the Gospels contained therein, was undoubtedly the one which was used by our apostle. We give a fac-simile of the first page, which cannot fail to interest the antiquarian.

[143] _Famine years_.--During the famous, or rather infamous, Partry evictions, an old man of eighty and a woman of seventy-four were amongst the number of those who suffered for their ancient faith. They were driven from the home which their parents and grandfathers had occupied, in a pitiless storm of sleet and snow. The aged woman utters some slight complaint; but her n.o.ble-hearted aged husband consoles her with this answer: "The sufferings and death of Jesus Christ were bitterer still."

Sixty-nine souls were cast out of doors that day. Well might the _Times_ say: "These evictions are a hideous scandal; and the bishop should rather die than be guilty of such a crime." Yet, who can count up all the evictions, ma.s.sacres, tortures, and punishments which this people has endured?

CHAPTER X.

[Gothic: The Religion of Ancient Erinn]--The Druids and their Teaching--The Irish were probably Fire-wors.h.i.+ppers--[Gothic: The Customs of Ancient Erinn]--Similarity between Eastern and Irish Customs--Beal Fires--Hunting the Wren--"Jacks," a Grecian game--"Keen," an Eastern Custom--Superst.i.tions--The Meaning of the Word--What Customs are Superst.i.tious and what are not--Holy Wells--[Gothic: The Laws of Ancient Erinn]--Different kinds of Laws--The Lex non Scripta and the Lex Scripta--Christianity necessitated the Revision of Ancient Codes--The Compilation of the Brehon Laws--Proofs that St. Patrick a.s.sisted thereat--Law of Distress--Law of Succession--[Gothic: The Language of Ancient Erinn]--Writing in pre-Christian Erinn--Ogham Writing--[Gothic: Antiquities of pre-Christian Erinn]--Round Towers--Cromlechs--Raths--Crannoges.

Eastern customs and eastern superst.i.tions, which undoubtedly are a strong confirmatory proof of our eastern origin, abounded in ancient Erinn. Druidism was the religion of the Celts, and druidism was probably one of the least corrupt forms of paganism. The purity of the divinely-taught patriarchal wors.h.i.+p, became more and more corrupted as it pa.s.sed through defiled channels. Yet, in all pagan mythologies, we find traces of the eternal verity in an obvious prominence of cultus offered to one G.o.d above the rest; and obvious, though grossly misapplied, glimpses of divine attributes, in the many deified objects which seemed to symbolize his power and his omnipotence.

The Celtic druids probably taught the same doctrine as the Greek philosophers. The metempsychosis, a prominent article of this creed, may have been derived from the Pythagoreans, but more probably it was one of the many relics of patriarchal belief which were engrafted on all pagan religions. They also taught that the universe would never be entirely destroyed, supposing that it would be purified by fire and water from time to time. This opinion may have been derived from the same source.

The druids had a _pontifex maximus_, to whom they yielded entire obedience,--an obvious imitation of the Jewish custom. The nation was entirely governed by its priests, though after a time, when the kingly power developed itself, the priestly power gave place to the regal. Gaul was the head-quarters of druidism; and thither we find the Britons, and even the Romans, sending their children for instruction. Eventually, Mona became a chief centre for Britain. The Gaedhilic druids, though probably quite as learned as their continental brethren, were more isolated; and hence we cannot learn so much of their customs from external sources. There is no doubt that the druids of Gaul and Britain offered human sacrifices; it appears almost certain the Irish druids did not.

Our princ.i.p.al and most reliable information about this religion, is derived from Caesar. His account of the learning of its druids, of their knowledge of astronomy, physical science, mechanics, arithmetic, and medicine, however highly coloured, is amply corroborated by the casual statements of other authors.[144] He expressly states that they used the Greek character in their writings, and mentions tables found in the camp of the Helvetii written in these characters, containing an account of all the men capable of bearing arms.

It is probable that Irish druidical rites manifested themselves princ.i.p.ally in Sun-wors.h.i.+p. The name of Bel, still retained in the Celtic Beltinne, indicates its Phoenician origin; Baal being the name under which they adored that luminary. It is also remarkable that Grian, which signifies the sun in Irish, resembles an epithet of Apollo given by Virgil,[145] who sometimes styles him Grynaeus. St. Patrick also confirms this conjecture, by condemning Sun-wors.h.i.+p in his Confession, when he says: "All those who adore it shall descend into misery and punishment." If the well-known pa.s.sage of Diodorus Siculus may be referred to Ireland, it affords another confirmation. Indeed, it appears difficult to conceive how any other place but Ireland could be intended by the "island in the ocean over against Gaul, to the north, and not inferior in size to Sicily, the _soil of which is so fruitful_ that they mow there twice in the year."[146] In this most remarkable pa.s.sage, he mentions the skill of their harpers, their sacred groves and _singular temple of round form_, their attachment to the Greeks by a singular affection from _old times_, and their tradition of having been visited by the Greeks, who left offerings which were noted in _Greek letters_.

Toland and Carte a.s.sume that this pa.s.sage refers to the Hebrides, Rowlands applies it to the island of Anglesea; but these conjectures are not worth regarding. We can scarcely imagine an unprejudiced person deciding against Ireland; but where prejudice exists, no amount of proof will satisfy. It has been suggested that the Irish pagan priests were not druids properly so called, but magi;[147] and that the Irish word which is taken to mean druid, is only used to denote persons specially gifted with wisdom. Druidism probably sprung from magism, which was a purer kind of wors.h.i.+p, though it would be difficult now to define the _precise_ limits which separated these forms of paganism. If the original pagan religion of ancient Erinn was magism, introduced by its Phoenician colonizers, it is probable that it had gradually degenerated to the comparatively grosser rites of the druid before the advent of St.

Patrick. His destruction of the idols at Magh Slecht is unquestionable evidence that idol wors.h.i.+p[148] was then practised, though probably in a very limited degree.

The folklore of a people is perhaps, next to their language, the best guide to their origin. The editor of Bohn's edition of the Chronicle of Richard of Cirencester remarks, that "many points of coincidence have been remarked in comparing the religion of the Hindoos with that of the ancient Britons; and in the language of these two people some striking similarities occur in those proverbs and modes of expression which are derived from national and religious ceremonies."[149] We are not aware of any British customs or proverbs which bear upon this subject, nor does the writer mention any in proof of his a.s.sertion: if, however, for Britons we read Irish, his observations may be amply verified.

The kindly "G.o.d save you!" and "G.o.d bless all here!" of the Irish peasant, finds its counterpart in the eastern "G.o.d be gracious to thee, my son!" The partiality, if not reverence, for the number seven, is indicated in our churches. The warm-hearted hospitality of the very poorest peasant, is a practical and never-failing ill.u.s.tration of the Hindoo proverb, "The tree does not withdraw its shade even from the woodcutter."

The celebration of St. John's Eve by watchfires, is undoubtedly a remnant of paganism, still practised in many parts of Ireland, as we can aver from personal knowledge; but the custom of pa.s.sing cattle through the fire has been long discontinued, and those who kindle the fires have little idea of its origin, and merely continue it as an amus.e.m.e.nt. Kelly mentions, in his _Folklore_, that a calf was sacrificed in Northamptons.h.i.+re during the present century, in one of these fires, to "stop the murrain." The superst.i.tious use of fire still continues in England and Scotland, though we believe the Beltinne on St. John's Eve is peculiar to Ireland. The hunting of the wren[150] on St. Stephen's Day, in this country, is said, by Vallancey, to have been originated by the first Christian missionaries, to counteract the superst.i.tious reverence with which this bird was regarded by the druids. Cla.s.sic readers will remember the origin of the respect paid to this bird in pagan times. The peasantry in Ireland, who have never read either Pliny or Aristotle, are equally conversant with the legend.

The common and undignified game of "jacks" also lays claim to a n.o.ble ancestry. In Mr. St. John's work on _The Manners and Customs of Ancient Greece_, he informs us that the game was a cla.s.sical one, and called _pentalitha._ It was played with five _astragals_--knuckle-bones, pebbles, or little b.a.l.l.s--which were thrown up into the air, and then attempted to be caught when falling on the back of the hand. Another Irish game, "p.r.i.c.king the loop," in Greece is called _himantiliginos_, p.r.i.c.king the garter. Hemestertius supposes the Gordian Knot to have been nothing but a variety of the himantiliginos. The game consists in winding a thong in such an intricate manner, that when a peg is inserted in the right ring, it is caught, and the game is won; if the mark is missed, the thong unwinds without entangling the peg.

The Irish keen [_caoine_] may still be heard in Algeria and Upper Egypt, even as Herodotus heard it chanted by Lybian women. This wailing for the deceased is a most ancient custom; and if antiquity imparts dignity, it can hardly be termed barbarous. The Romans employed keeners at their funerals, an idea which they probably borrowed from the Etruscans,[151]

with many others incomparably more valuable, but carefully self-appropriated. Our _wakes_ also may have had an ident.i.ty of origin with the funeral feasts of the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans, whose customs were all probably derived from a common source.

The fasting of the creditor on the debtor is still practised in India, and will be noticed in connexion with the Brehon Laws. There is, however, a cla.s.s of customs which have obtained the generic term of superst.i.tions, which may not quite be omitted, and which are, for many reasons, difficult to estimate rightly. In treating of this subject, we encounter, _prima facie_, the difficulty of giving a definition of superst.i.tion. The Irish are supposed to be pre-eminently a superst.i.tious people. Those who make this an accusation, understand by superst.i.tion the belief in anything supernatural; and they consider as equally superst.i.tious, veneration of a relic, belief in a miracle, a story of a banshee, or a legend of Finn Mac c.u.mhaill. Probably, if the Celts did not venerate relics, and believe in the possibility of miracles, we should hear far less of their superst.i.tions. Superst.i.tion of the grossest kind is prevalent among the lower orders in every part of England, and yet the nation prides itself on its rejection of this weakness. But according to another acceptation of the term, only such heathen customs as refer to the wors.h.i.+p of false G.o.ds, are superst.i.tions. These customs remain, unfortunately, in many countries, but in some they have been Christianized. Those who use the term superst.i.tion generically, still call the custom superst.i.tious, from a latent and, perhaps, in some cases, unconscious impression that there is no supernatural. Such persons commence with denying all miraculous interventions except those which are recorded in holy Scripture; and unhappily, in some cases, end by denying the miracles of Scripture.

To salute a person who sneezed with some form of benediction, was a pagan custom. It is said to have originated through an opinion of the danger attending it; and the exclamation used was: "Jupiter help me!" In Ireland, the pagan custom still remains, but it has been Christianized, and "G.o.d bless you!" is subst.i.tuted for the pagan form. Yet we have known persons who considered the use of this aspiration superst.i.tious, and are pleased to a.s.sert that the Irish use the exclamation as a protection against evil spirits, meaning thereby fairies. When a motive is persistently attributed which does not exist, argument is useless.

Devotion to certain places, pilgrimages, even fasting and other bodily macerations, were pagan customs. These, also, have been Christianized.

Buildings once consecrated to the wors.h.i.+p of pagan G.o.ds, are now used as Christian temples: what should we think of the person who should a.s.sert that because pagan G.o.ds were once adored in these churches, therefore the wors.h.i.+p now offered in them was offered to pagan deities? The temples, lite the customs, are Christianized.

The author of a very interesting article in the _Ulster Archaeological Journal_ (vol. ix. p. 256), brings forward a number of Irish customs for which he finds counterparts in India. But he forgets that in Ireland the customs are Christianized, while in India, they remain pagan; and like most persons who consider the Irish pre-eminently superst.i.tious, he appears ignorant of the teaching of that Church which Christianized the world. The special "superst.i.tion" of this article is the devotion to holy wells. The custom still exists in Hindostan; people flock to them for cure of their diseases, and leave "rags" on the bushes as "scapegoats," _ex votos_, so to say, of cures, or prayers for cures. In India, the prayer is made to a heathen deity; in Ireland, the people happen to believe that G.o.d hears the prayers of saints more readily than their own; and acting on the principle which induced persons, in apostolic times, to use "handkerchiefs and ap.r.o.ns" which had touched the person of St. Paul as mediums of cure, because of his virgin sanct.i.ty, in preference to "handkerchiefs and ap.r.o.ns" of their own, they apply to the saints and obtain cures. But they do not believe the saints can give what G.o.d refuses, or that the saints are more merciful than G.o.d. They know that the saints are His special friends, and we give to a friend what we might refuse to one less dear. _Lege totum, si vis scire totum_, is a motto which writers on national customs should not forget.

Customs were probably the origin of laws. Law, in its most comprehensive sense, signifies a rule of action laid down[152] by a superior. Divine law is manifested (1) by the law of nature, and (2) by revelation. The law of nations is an arbitrary arrangement, founded on the law of nature and the law of revelation: its perfection depends obviously on its correspondence with the divine law. Hence, by common consent, the greatest praise is given to those laws of ancient nations which approximate most closely to the law of nature, though when such laws came to be revised by those who had received the law of revelation, they were necessarily amended or altered in conformity therewith. No government can exist without law; but as hereditary succession preceded the law of hereditary succession, which was at first established by custom, so the _lex non scripta_, or national custom, preceded the _lex scripta_, or statute law. The intellectual condition of a nation may be well and safely estimated by its laws. A code of laws that were observed for centuries before the Christian era, and for centuries after the Christian era, and which can bear the most critical tests of forensic ac.u.men in the nineteenth century, evidence that the framers of the code were possessed of no slight degree of mental culture. Such are the Brehon laws, by which pagan and Christian Erinn was governed for centuries.

The sixth century was a marked period of legal reform. The Emperor Justinian, by closing the schools of Athens, gave a deathblow to Grecian philosophy and jurisprudence. But Grecian influence had already acted on the formation of Roman law, and probably much of the Athenian code was embodied therein. The origin of Roman law is involved in the same obscurity as the origin of the Brehon code. In both cases, the mist of ages lies like a light, but impenetrable veil, over all that could give certainty to conjecture. Before the era of the Twelve Tables, mention is made of laws enacted by Romulus respecting what we should now call civil liabilities. Laws concerning religion are ascribed to Numa, and laws of contract to Servius Tullius, who is supposed to have collected the regulations made by his predecessors. The Twelve Tables were notably formed on the legal enactments of Greece. The cruel severity of the law for insolvent debtors, forms a marked contrast to the milder and more equitable arrangements of the Brehon code. By the Roman enactments, the person of the debtor was at the mercy of his creditor, who might sell him for a slave beyond the Tiber. The Celt allowed only the seizure of goods, and even this was under regulations most favourable to the debtor. The legal establishment of Christianity by Constantine, or we should rather say the existence of Christianity, necessitated a complete revision of all ancient laws: hence we find the compilation of the Theodosian code almost synchronizing with the revision of the Brehon laws. The spread of Christianity, and the new modes of thought and action which obtained thereby, necessitated the reconstruction of ancient jurisprudence in lands as widely distant geographically, and as entirely separated politically, as Italy and Ireland.

Those who have studied the subject most carefully, and who are therefore most competent to give an opinion, accept the popular account of the revision of our laws.

The Four Masters thus record this important event:--"The age of Christ 438. The tenth year of Laeghaire. The Feinchus of Ireland were purified and written, the writings and old works of Ireland having been collected [and brought] to one place at the request of St. Patrick. Those were the nine supporting props by whom this was done: Laeghaire, i.e., King of Ireland, Corc, and Daire, the three kings; Patrick, Benen, and Cairneach, the three saints; Ross, Dubhthach, and Fearghus, the three antiquaries." Dr. O'Donovan, in his note, shelters himself under an extract from Petrie's _Tara;_ but it is to be supposed that he coincides in the opinion of that gentleman. Dr. Petrie thinks that "little doubt can be entertained that such a work was compiled within a short period after the introduction of Christianity in the country, and that St.

Patrick may have laid the foundations of it;"[153] though he gives no satisfactory reason why that saint should not have a.s.sisted at the compilation, and why the statements of our annalists should be refused on this subject, when they are accepted on others. A list of the "family" [household] of Patrick is given immediately after, which Dr.

O'Donovan has taken great pains to verify, and with which he appears satisfied. If the one statement is true, why should the other be false?

Mr. O'Curry, whose opinion on such subjects is admittedly worthy of the highest consideration, expresses himself strongly in favour of receiving the statements of our annalists, and thinks that both Dr. Petrie and Dr.

Lanigan are mistaken in supposing that the compilation was not effected by those to whom it has been attributed. As to the antiquity of these laws, he observes that Cormac Mac Cullinan quotes pa.s.sages from them in his Glossary, which was written not later than the ninth century, and then the language of the Seanchus[154] Mor was so ancient that it had become obsolete. To these laws, he well observes, the language of Moore, on the MSS. in the Royal Irish Academy, may be applied: "They were not written by a foolish people, nor for any foolish purpose;" and these were the "laws and inst.i.tutions which regulated the political and social system of a people the most remarkable in Europe, from a period almost lost in the dark mazes of antiquity, down to about within two hundred years of our own time, and whose spirit and traditions influence the feelings and actions of the native Irish even to this day."[155]

But we can adduce further testimony. The able editor and translator of the _Seanchus Mor_, which forms so important a portion of our ancient code, has, in his admirable Preface, fully removed all doubt on this question. He shows the groundlessness of the objections (princ.i.p.ally chronological) which had been made regarding those who are a.s.serted to have been its compilers. He also makes it evident that it was a work in which St. Patrick should have been expected to engage: (1) because, being a Roman citizen, and one who had travelled much, he was probably well aware of the Christian modifications which had already been introduced into the Roman code. (2) That he was eminently a judicious missionary, and such a revision of national laws would obviously be no slight support to the advancement of national Christianity. It is also remarked, that St. Patrick may not necessarily have a.s.sisted personally in writing the MS.; his confirmation of what was compiled by others would be sufficient. St. Benignus, who is known to be the author of other works,[156] probably acted as his amanuensis.

The subject-matter of the portions of the Seanchus Mor which have been translated, is the law of distress. Two points are noticeable in this: First, the careful and accurate administration of justice which is indicated by the details of these legal enactments; second, the custom therein sanctioned of the creditor fasting upon the debtor, a custom which still exists in Hindostan. Hence, in some cases, the creditor fasts on the debtor until he is compelled to pay his debt, lest his creditor should die at the door; in other cases, the creditor not only fasts himself, but also compels his debtor to fast, by stopping his supplies. Elphinstone describes this as used even against princes, and especially by troops to procure payment of arrears.[157]

One of the most noticeable peculiarities of the Brehon law is the compensation for murder, called _eric_. This, however, was common to other nations. Its origin is ascribed to the Germans, but the inst.i.tution was probably far more ancient. We find it forbidden[158] in the oldest code of laws in existence; and hence the _eric_ must have been in being at an early period of the world's civil history.

The law of succession, called _tanaisteacht_, or tanistry, is one of the most peculiar of the Brehon laws. The eldest son succeeded the father to the exclusion of all collateral claimants, unless he was disqualified by deformity, imbecility, or crime. In after ages, by a compact between parents or mutual agreement, the succession was sometimes made alternate in two or more families. The eldest son, being recognized as presumptive heir, was denominated _tanaiste_, that is, minor or second; while the other sons, or persons eligible in case of failure, were termed _righdhamhua_, which literally means king-material, or king-makings. The _tanaiste_ had a separate establishment and distinct privileges. The primitive intention was, that the "best man" should reign; but practically it ended in might being taken for right, and often for less important qualifications.

The possession and inheritance of landed property was regulated by the law called gavelkind (gavail-kinne), an ancient Celtic inst.i.tution, but common to Britons, Anglo-Saxons, and others. By this law, inherited or other property was divided equally between the sons, to the exclusion of the daughters (unless, indeed, in default of heirs male, when females were permitted a life interest). The _tanaiste_, however, was allotted the dwelling-house and other privileges.

The tenure of land was a tribe or family right; and, indeed, the whole system of government and legislation was far more patriarchal than Teutonic--another indication of an eastern origin. All the members of a tribe or family had an equal right to their proportionate share of the land occupied by the whole. This system created a mutual independence and self-consciousness of personal right and importance, strongly at variance with the subjugation of the Germanic and Anglo-Norman va.s.sal.

The compilation of the Brehon laws originated in a question that arose as to how the murderer of Odran, Patrick's charioteer, should be punished. The saint was allowed to select whatever Brehon he pleased to give judgment. He chose Dubhthach; and the result of his decision was the compilation of these laws, as it was at once seen that a purely pagan code would not suit Christian teaching.

The Celtic language is now admittedly one of the most ancient in existence. Its affinity with Sanscrit, the eldest daughter of the undiscoverable mother-tongue, has been amply proved,[159] and the study of the once utterly despised Irish promises to be one which will abundantly repay the philologist. It is to be regretted that we are indebted to German students for the verification of these statements; but the Germans are manifestly born philologists, and they have opportunities of leisure, and encouragement for the prosecution of such studies, denied to the poorer Celt. It is probable that Celtic will yet be found to have been one of the most important of the Indo-European tongues. Its influence on the formation of the Romance languages has yet to be studied in the light of our continually increasing knowledge of its more ancient forms; and perhaps the conjectures of Betham will, by the close of this century, receive as much respect as the once equally ridiculed history of Keating.

It is almost impossible to doubt that the Irish nation had letters and some form of writing before the arrival of St. Patrick. There are so many references to the existence of writings in the most ancient MSS., that it appears more rash to deny their statements than to accept them.

[Ill.u.s.tration: RUNES FROM THE RUNIC CROSS AT RUTHWELL.]

The three princ.i.p.al arguments against a pre-Christian alphabet appears to be: (1) The absence of any MS. of such writing. (2) The use of the Roman character in all MSS. extant. (3) The universal opinion, scarcely yet exploded, that the Irish Celts were barbarians. In reply to the first objection, we may observe that St. Patrick is said to have destroyed all the remnants of pagan writing.[160] Caesar mentions that the druids of Gaul used Greek characters. It appears impossible that the Irish druids, who were at least their equals in culture, should have been dest.i.tute of any kind of written character. The ancient form of Welsh letters were somewhat similar to the runes of which we give a specimen, and this alphabet was called the "alphabet of the bards," in contradistinction to which is placed the "alphabet of the monks," or Roman alphabet. The alphabet of the Irish bard may have been the Beith-luis-nion, represented by the Ogham character, of which more hereafter.