Comets and Meteors Part 2

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 3.]

It is infinitely improbable that these coincidences should be accidental; they point undoubtedly to a common origin of the two bodies.

According to the theory now generally accepted, comets enter the solar system _ab extra_, move in parabolas or hyperbolas around the sun, and, if undisturbed by the planets, pa.s.s off beyond the limits of the sun's attraction, to be seen no more. If in their motion, however, they approach very near any of the larger planets, their direction is changed by planetary perturbation,--their orbits being sometimes transformed into ellipses. The new orbits of such bodies would pa.s.s very nearly through the points at which their greatest perturbation occurred; and accordingly we find that the aphelia of a large proportion of the periodic comets are near the orbits of the major planets. "I admit,"

says M. Hoek, "that the orbits of comets are by nature parabolas or hyperbolas, and that in the cases when elliptical orbits are met with, these are occasioned by planetary attractions, or derive their character from the uncertainty of our observations. To allow the contrary would be to admit some comets as permanent members of our planetary system, to which they ought to have belonged since its origin, and so to a.s.sert the simultaneous birth of that system and of these comets. As for me, I attribute to these a primitive wandering character. Traveling through s.p.a.ce, they move from one star to another in order to leave it again, provided they do not meet any obstacle that may force them to remain in its vicinity. Such an obstacle was Jupiter, in the neighborhood of our sun, for the comets of Lexell and Brorsen, and probably for the greater part of periodical comets; the other part of which may be indebted for their elliptical orbits to the attractions of Saturn and the remaining planets.

"Generally, then, comets come to us from some star or other. The attraction of our sun modifies their orbit, as had been done already by each star through whose sphere of attraction they had pa.s.sed. We can put the question if they come as single bodies or united in systems."

The conclusion of this astronomer's interesting discussion is that--

"_There are systems of comets in s.p.a.ce that are broken up by the attraction of our sun, and whose members attain, as isolated bodies, the vicinity of the earth during a course of several years._"[6]

[6] Monthly Notices of the R. A. S., vol. xxv., p. 243.

In the researches here referred to, it is shown by Professor Hoek that the comets of 1860 III., 1863 I., and 1863 IV. formed a group in s.p.a.ce previous to their entrance into our system. The same fact has also been demonstrated in regard to other comets which need not here be specified.

Now, the comets of 1812 and 1846 IV. have their aphelia near the orbit of Neptune, and hence the original parabolas in which they moved were probably transformed into ellipses by the perturbations of that planet.

Before entering the solar domain, they were doubtless members of a cometary system. Pa.s.sing Neptune near the same time, and at some distance from each other, their different relative positions with regard to the disturbing body may account for the slight differences in the elements of their orbits.

_Comets of the Jovian Group._

Besides the eight comets enumerated in Chapter II. whose aphelia are in the vicinity of Jupiter's...o...b..t, five others have been observed which belong apparently to the same cl.u.s.ter. These are the comets of 1585, 1743 I., 1766 II., 1783, and 1819 IV. "The fact that these comets have not been re-observed on their successive returns through perihelion may be explained either by the difficulty of observing them, owing to their unfavorable positions, and to the circ.u.mstances of observers not expecting their reappearance, their periodic character not being then suspected, or because they may have been thrown by the disturbing action of the larger planets into orbits such as to keep them continually out of the range of view of terrestrial observers."[7]

[7] Dr. Lardner.

Lexell's comet of 1770 is the most remarkable instance known of the change produced in the orbits of these bodies by planetary attraction.

This comet pa.s.sed so near Jupiter in 1779 that the attraction of the latter was 200 times greater than that of the sun. The consequence was that the comet, whose mean distance corresponded to a period of 5-1/2 years, was thrown into an orbit so entirely different that it has never since been visible.

PETERS' COMET.

A telescopic comet was discovered by Dr. Peters on the 26th of June, 1846, which continued to be observed till the 21st of July. Its period, according to the discoverer, is about 13 years, and its aphelion, like that of Tuttle's comet, is in the vicinity of Saturn's...o...b..t. It was expected to return in 1859, and again in 1872, but each time escaped detection, owing probably to the fact that its position was unfavorable for observation.

STEPHAN'S COMET (1867 I.).

In January, 1867, M. Stephan, of Ma.r.s.eilles, discovered a new comet, the elements of which, after two months' observations, were computed by Mr.

G. M. Searle, of Cambridge, Ma.s.sachusetts. The perihelion of this body is near the orbit of Mars; its aphelion near that of Ura.n.u.s,--the least distance of the orbits being about 2,000,000 miles. The present form of the cometary path is doubtless due to the disturbing action of Ura.n.u.s.

The comet completes its revolution in 33.62 years; consequently (as has been pointed out by Mr. J. R. Hind) five of its periods are almost exactly equal to two periods of Ura.n.u.s. The next approximate appulse of the two bodies will occur in 1985, when the form of the comet's...o...b..t may be sensibly modified.

ELLIPTIC COMETS WHOSE APHELIA ARE AT A MUCH GREATER DISTANCE THAN NEPTUNE's...o...b..T.

In October, 1097, a comet was seen both in Europe and China, which was noted for the fact of its having two distinct tails, making with each other an angle of about 40. From a discussion of the Chinese observations (which extended through a longer period than the European), Laugier concluded that this body is identical with the third comet of 1840, which was discovered by Galle on the 6th of March. If, therefore, it has made no intermediate return without being observed, it must have a period of about 743 years. It is also highly probable, from the similarity of elements, that the comet which pa.s.sed its perihelion on the 5th of June, 1845, was a reappearance of the comet of 1596,--the period of revolution being 249 years. The elements of the great comet of 1843 are somewhat uncertain. There is a probability, however, of the ident.i.ty of this body with the comet of 1668. This would make the period 175 years. The third comet of 1862 is especially interesting from its connection with the August meteors. Its period, according to Dr.

Oppolzer, is 121-1/2 years.

THE GREAT COMET OF 1858

was one of the most remarkable in the nineteenth century. It was discovered on the 2d of June, by Donati, of Florence, and first became visible to the naked eye about the last of August. The comet attained its greatest brilliancy about the 10th of October, when its distance from the earth was 50,000,000 miles. The length of its tail somewhat exceeded this distance. If, therefore, the comet had been at that time directly between the sun and the earth, the latter must have been enveloped for a number of hours in the cometic matter.

The observations of this comet during a period of five months enabled astronomers to determine the elements of its...o...b..t within small limits of error. It completes a revolution, according to Newcomb, in 1854 years, in an orbit somewhat more eccentric than that of Halley's comet.

It will not return before the 38th century, and will only reach its aphelion about the year 2800. Its motion per second when nearest the sun is 36 miles; when most remote, only 234 yards.

CHAPTER IV.

OTHER REMARKABLE COMETS.

It remains to describe some of the most remarkable comets of which we have any record, but of which we have no means of determining with certainty whether they move in ellipses, parabolas, or hyperbolas.

In the year 466 B.C., a large comet appeared simultaneously with the famous fall of meteoric stones near aegospotamos. The former was supposed by the ancients to have had some agency in producing the latter phenomenon. Another of extraordinary magnitude appeared in the year 373 B.C. This comet was so bright as to throw shadows, and its tail extended one-third of the distance from the horizon to the zenith. The years 156, 136, 130, and 48, before our era, were also signalized by the appearance of very large comets. The apparent magnitude of the first of these is said to have equaled that of the sun itself; while its light was sufficient to diminish sensibly the darkness of the night. The second is said to have filled a fourth part of the celestial hemisphere. The comet of 130 B.C., sometimes called the comet of Mithridates, because of its appearance about the time of his birth, is said to have rivaled the sun in splendor.

In A.D. 178 a large comet was visible during a period of nearly three months. Its nucleus had a remarkably red or fiery appearance, and the greatest length of its tail exceeded 60. The most brilliant comets of the sixth century were probably those of 531 and 582. The train of the latter, as seen in the west soon after sunset, presented the appearance of a distant conflagration.

Great comets appeared in the years 975, 1264, and 1556. Of these, the comet of 1264 had the greatest apparent magnitude. It was first seen early in July, and attained its greatest brilliancy in the latter part of August, when its tail was 100 in length. It disappeared on the 3d of October, about the time of the death of Pope Urban IV., of which event the comet, in consequence of this coincidence, was considered the precursor. These comets, on account of the similarity of their elements, were believed by many astronomers to be the same, and to have a period of about 300 years. In the case of ident.i.ty, however, another reappearance should have occurred soon after the middle of the nineteenth century. As no such return was observed, we may conclude that the comets were not the same, and that their periods are wholly unknown.

The comet discovered on the 10th of November, 1618, was one of the largest in modern times; its tail having attained the extraordinary length of 104. The comet of 1652, so carefully observed by Hevelius, almost equaled the moon in apparent magnitude. It shone, however, with a lurid, dismal light. The tail of the comet of 1680 was 90 in length.

This body is also remarkable for its near approach to the sun; its least distance from the solar surface having been only 147,000 miles. It will always be especially memorable, however, for having furnished Newton the data by means of which he first showed that comets in their orbital motions are governed by the same principle that regulates the planetary revolutions.

Of all the comets which appeared during the eighteenth century, that which pa.s.sed its perihelion on the 7th of October, 1769, had the greatest apparent magnitude. It was discovered by Messier on the 8th of August, and continued to be observed till the 1st of December. On the 11th of September the length of its tail was 97. The comet discovered on the 26th of March, 1811, is in some respects the most remarkable on record. It was observed during a period of 16 months and 22 days,--the longest period of visibility known. On account of its situation with respect to the earth, the apparent length of its tail was much less than that of some other comets; its true length, however, was at one time 120,000,000 miles; and Sir William Herschel found that on the 12th of October the greatest circular section of the tail was 15,000,000 miles in diameter. The same astronomer found the diameter of the head of the comet to be 127,000 miles, and that of the envelope at least 643,000. As a general thing, the length of a comet-train increases very rapidly as the body approaches the sun. But the perihelion distance of the comet of 1811 was considerably greater than the distance of the earth from the sun; while its nearest approach to the earth was 110,000,000 miles. Its true magnitude, therefore, has probably not been surpa.s.sed by any other observed; and had its perihelion been very near the sun, it must have exhibited an appearance of terrific grandeur. This comet has an elliptic orbit, and its period, according to Argelander, is 3065 years.

The great comet of 1861 was discovered on the 13th of May, by Mr. John Tebbut, Jr., of New South Wales. In this country, as well as in Europe, it was first generally observed on the evening of June 30,--19 days after its perihelion pa.s.sage. Sir John Herschel, who observed it in Kent, England, remarks that it far exceeded in brilliancy any comets he had ever seen, not excepting those of 1811 and 1858. According to Father Secchi, of the Collegio Romano, the length of its tail was 118. This, with a single exception,[8] is the greatest on record. The computed orbit is elliptical; the period, 419 years.

[8] The tail of the first comet of 1865 (observed in the Southern Hemisphere) attained the unprecedented length of 150.--_M. N. R. A. S._, vol. xxv., p. 220.

CHAPTER V.

THE POSITION AND ARRANGEMENT OF COMETARY ORBITS.

The cosmical ma.s.ses from which comets are derived seem to traverse in great numbers the interstellar s.p.a.ces. In consequence of the sun's progressive motion, these nebulous bodies are sometimes drawn toward the centre of our system. If, in this approach, they are not disturbed by any of the large planets, they again recede in parabolas or hyperbolas.

When, however, as must sometimes be the case, they pa.s.s near Jupiter, Saturn, Ura.n.u.s, or Neptune, their orbits may be transformed into elongated ellipses. The periodicity of many comets may thus be accounted for.

In the present chapter it is proposed to consider the probable consequences of the sun's motion through regions of s.p.a.ce in which cometary matter is widely diffused; to compare our theoretical deductions with observed phenomena; and thus refer to their physical cause a variety of facts which have hitherto received no satisfactory explanation.[9]

[9] This chapter is the substance of a paper read before the American Philosophical Society, November 19, 1869.

1. As comets, at least in many instances, owe their periodicity to the disturbing action of the major planets, and as this planetary influence is sometimes sufficient, especially in the case of Jupiter and Saturn, to change the _direction_ of cometary motion, the great majority of periodic comets should move in the same direction with the planets. Now, of the comets known to be elliptical, 70 per cent. _have direct motion_.

In this respect, therefore, theory and observation are in striking harmony.

2. When the relative positions of a comet and the disturbing planet are such as to give the transformed orbit of the former a small perihelion distance, the comet must return to the point at which it received its greatest perturbation; in other words, to the orbit of the planet. The aphelia of the comets of short period ought therefore to be found, for the most part, _in the vicinity of the orbits of the major planets_.