The Psychology of Management Part 22

SELECTIVE POWER OF SENSES DEVELOPED.--James defines the sense organs as "organs of selection."[11] Scientific Management so trains them that they can select what is of most value to the worker.

METHODS OF SENSE TRAINING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The senses are trained under Scientific Management by means of the various sources of teaching. The instruction card, with its detailed descriptions of operations, and its accompanying ill.u.s.trations, not only tends to increase powers of visualization, but also, by the close observation it demands, it reduces the minimum visible. The "visible instruction card," or working model, is an example of supplementing weak power of visualization. The most available simple, inexpensive and easily handled device to a.s.sist visualizing is the stereo or three-dimension photograph, which not only serves its purpose at the time of its use, but trains the eye to see the third dimension always.

Much training is given to the eye in Scientific Management by the constant insistence on inspection. This inspection is not confined to the inspector, but is the constant practice of worker and foremen, in order that work may be of such a quality as will merit a bonus.

SENSES THAT ARE MOST UTILIZED BEST TRAINED.--The relative training given to the various senses depends on the nature of the work. When the ear is the tester of efficiency, as it often is with an engineer watching machinery in action, emphasis is laid on training the hearing. In work where touch is important, emphasis is on such training as will develop that sense.[12]

VARIATIONS IN SENSE POWER SHOULD BE UTILIZED.--Investigations are constantly going to prove that each sense has a predominance at a different time in the age of the child or man. Dottoressa Montessori's experience with teaching very young children by touch shows that that sense is able to discriminate to an extraordinary extent for the first six years of life.[13]

So, also, acute keenness of any sense, by reason of age or experience should be conserved.[14] Such acuteness is often the result of some need, and, unless consciously preserved, will vanish with the need.

PROGRESS IN SUCH TRAINING.--The elementary sense experiences are defined and described by Calkins.[15] Only through a psychological study can one realize the numerous elements and the possibility of study. As yet, doubtless, Scientific Management misses many opportunities for training and utilizing the senses. But the standardizing of elements, and the realization of the importance of more and more intensive study of the elements lends a.s.surance that ultimately all possibilities will be utilized.

AS MANY SENSES AS POSSIBLE APPEALED TO.--Scientific Management has made great progress in appealing to as many senses as possible in its teaching. The importance of the relation between the senses is brought out by Prof. Stratton.[16]

In teaching, Scientific Management has, in its teachers, animate and inanimate, great possibilities of appealing to many senses simultaneously. The instruction card may be

1. read to oneself silently--eyes appealed to 2. read to oneself aloud--eyes and ears appealed to, also muscles used trained to repeat 3. read aloud to one--ears 4. read aloud to one and also read silently by one,-- eyes and ears 5. read aloud, and at the same time copied--eyes, ears, muscles of mouth, muscles of hand 6. read to one, while process described is demonstrated 7. read to one while process is performed by oneself

There are only a few of the possible combinations, any of which are used, as best suits the worker and the work.[17]

UNTRAINED WORKER REQUIRES APPEAL TO MOST SENSES.--The value of appeal to many senses is best realized in teaching an inexperienced worker. His senses help to remind him what to do, and to "check up"

his results.

AT TIMES APPEAL TO BUT ONE SENSE PREFERABLE.--In the case of work that must be watched constantly, and that involves continuous processes, it may prove best to have directions read to the worker.

So also, the Gang Instruction Card may often be read to advantage to the gang, thus allowing the next member of a group of members to rest, or to observe, while directions are taken in through the ears only. In this way time is allowed to overcome fatigue, yet the work is not halted.

AT TIMES ONE SENSE IS BEST NOT UTILIZED.--At times teaching may well omit one sense in its appeal, because that sense will tend to confuse the learning, and will, when the method is learned, be otherwise utilized than it could be during the learning process. In teaching the "touch system" of typewriting,[18] the position of the keys is quickly remembered by having the key named aloud and at the same time struck with the a.s.signed finger, the eyes being blindfolded. Thus hearing is utilized, also mouth muscles and finger muscles, but _not_ sight.

IMPORTANCE OF FATIGUE RECOGNIZED.--A large part of the success of sense appeal and sense training of Scientific Management is in the appreciation of the importance of fatigue. This was early recognized by Dr. Taylor, and is constantly receiving study from all those interested in Scientific Management.

PSYCHOLOGY ALREADY AIDING THE INDUSTRIES IN SUCH STUDY.--Study of the _Psychological Review_ will demonstrate the deep and increasing interest of psychologists in the subject of fatigue. The importance of such stimulating and helpful work as that done by Doctor A. Imbert of the University of Montpellier, France, is great.[19] Not only are the results of his investigations commercially valuable, but also they are valuable as indicating the close connection between Psychology and Industrial Efficiency.

IMPORTANCE OF HABITS.[20]--Prof. William James says "an acquired habit, from the psychological point of view, is nothing but a new pathway of discharge formed in the brain, by which certain incoming currents ever after tend to escape."

And again,--"First, habit simplifies our movements, makes them accurate, and diminishes fatigue,"[21] and habit diminishes the conscious attention with which our acts are performed. Again he says, page 144, "The great thing, then, in all education, is to make our nervous system our ally instead of an enemy; as it is to fund and capitalize our acquisitions, and live at ease upon the interest of the fund. For this we must make automatic and habitual, as early as possible, as many useful actions as we can, and guard against the growing into ways that are likely to be disadvantageous to us, as we should guard against the plague."

These quotations demonstrate the importance of habit.

How deep these paths of discharge are, is ill.u.s.trated by the fact that often a German, having spent the early years of his school life in Germany, will, even after learning to speak, read, write and think in English, find it difficult to figure in anything but German.

HABIT EASILY BECOMES THE MASTER.--Another ill.u.s.tration of the power of habit is exhibited by the bricklayer, who has been trained under old-time methods, and who attempts to follow the packet method. The standard motions for picking up the upper row of bricks from the packet are entirely different from those for picking up the lower row. The bricklayers were taught this, yet invariably used the old-time motions for picking up the bricks, in spite of the waste involved.[22]

WRONG PRECONCEIVED IDEAS HAMPER DEVELOPMENT.--Wrong habits or ideas often r.e.t.a.r.d development. For example, it took centuries for artists to see the colors of shadows correctly, because they were sure that such shadows were a darker tone of the color itself.[23]

TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT RESULTS IN GOOD HABITS.--The aim of teaching under Scientific Management, as has been said, is to create good habits of thinking and good habits of doing.

STANDARDS LEAD TO RIGHT METHODS OF THINKING AND ACTING.--The standards of Scientific Management, as presented to the worker in the instruction card, lead to good habits, in that they present the best known method of doing the work. They thus aid the beginner, in that he need waste no time searching for right methods, but can acquire right habits at once. They aid the worker trained under an older, supplanted method, in that they wage a winning war against old-time, worn-out methods and traditions. Old motor images, which tend to cause motions, are overcome by standard images, which suggest, and pa.s.s into, standard motions. The spontaneous recurring of images under the old method is the familiar cause of inattention and being unable to get down to business, and the real cause of the expression, "You can't teach old dogs new tricks." On the other hand, the spontaneous recurrence of the images of the standard method is the cause of greater speed of movement of the experienced man, and these images of the standard methods do recur often enough to drive down the old images and to enable all men who desire, to settle down and concentrate upon what they are doing.

THROUGH STANDARDS BAD HABITS ARE QUICKEST BROKEN.--Through the standards the bad habit is broken by the abrupt acquisition of a new habit. This is at once practiced, is practiced without exception, and is continually practiced until the new habit is in control.[24]

THROUGH STANDARDS NEW HABITS ARE QUICKEST FORMED.--These same standards, as presented in teaching, allow of the speediest forming of habits, in that repet.i.tion is exact and frequent, and is kept so by the fact that the worker's judgment seconds that of the teacher.

HABITS ARE INSTILLED BY TEACHING.--The chief function of the teacher during the stage that habits are being formed is the instilling of good habits.

METHODS OF INSTILLING GOOD HABITS.--This he does by insisting on

1. right motions first, that is to say,--the right number of right motions in the right sequence.

2. speed of motions second, that is to say, constantly increasing speed.

3. constantly improving quality.[25]

THIS METHOD IS CONTRARY TO MOST OLD-TIME PRACTICE.--Under most old-time practice the quality of the work was the first consideration, the quant.i.ty of work the second, and the methods of achieving the results the third.

RESULTS OF OLD-TIME PRACTICE.--As a result, the mechanical reactions, which were expected constantly to follow the improved habits of work, were constantly hindered by an involuntary impulse of the muscles to follow the old methods. Waste time and low output followed.

SOME EARLY RECOGNITION OF "RIGHT MOTIONS FIRST."--The necessity of teaching the right motions first was early recognized by a few progressive spirits, as is shown in military tactics; for example, see pages 6 and 7, "Cavalry Tactics of U.S.A." 1879, D. Appleton, also page 51.

Note also motions for grooming the horse, page 473. These directions not only teach the man how, but accustoms the horse to the sequence and location of motions that he may expect.

BENEFITS OF TEACHING RIGHT MOTIONS FIRST.--Through teaching right motions first reactions to stimuli gain in speed. The right habit is formed at the outset. With the constant insistence on these right habits that result from right motions, will come, naturally, an increase in speed, which should be fostered until the desired ultimate speed is reached.

ULTIMATELY, STANDARD QUALITY WILL RESULT.--The result of absolute insistence on right motions will be prescribed quality, because the standard motions prescribed were chosen because they best produced the desired result.

UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT NO LOSS FROM QUALITY DURING LEARNING.--As will be shown later, Scientific Management provides that there shall be little or no loss from the quality of the work during the learning period. The delay in time before the learner can be said to produce such work as could a learner taught where quality was insisted upon first of all, is more than compensated for by the ultimate combination of speed and quality gained.

RESULTS OF TEACHING THE RIGHT MOTIONS FIRST ARE FAR-REACHING.--There is no more important subject in this book on the Psychology of Management than this of teaching right motions first. The most important results of Scientific Management can all, in the last a.n.a.lysis, be formulated in terms of habits, even to the underlying spirit of cooperation which, as we shall show in "Welfare," is one of the most important ideas of Scientific Management. These right habits of Scientific Management are the cause, as well as the result, of progress, and the right habits, which have such a tremendous psychological importance, are the result of insisting that right motions be used from the very beginning of the first day.

FROM RIGHT HABITS OF MOTION COMES SPEED OF MOTIONS.-- Concentrating the mind on the next motion causes speed of motion.

Under Scientific Management, the underlying thought of sequence of motions is so presented that the worker can remember them, and make them in the shortest time possible.

RESPONSE TO STANDARDS BECOMES ALMOST AUTOMATIC.--The standard methods, being a.s.sociated from the start with right habits of motions only, cause an almost automatic response. There are no discarded habits to delay response.

STEADY NERVES RESULT.--Oftentimes the power to refrain from action is quite as much a sign of education and training as the power to react quickly from a sensation. Such conduct is called, in some cases, "steady nerves." The forming of right habits is a great aid toward these steady nerves. The man who knows that he is taught the right way, is able almost automatically to resist any suggestions which come to him to carry out wrong ways. So the man who is absolutely sure of his method, for example, in laying brick, will not be tempted to make those extra motions which, after all, are merely an exhibition in his hand of the vacillation that is going on in his brain, as to whether he really is handling that brick in exactly the most efficient manner, or not.

REASON AND WILL ARE EDUCATED.--"The education of hand and muscle implies a corresponding training of reasoning and will; and the coordination of movements accompanies the coordination of thoughts."[26]

The standards of Scientific Management educate hand and muscle; the education of hand and muscle train the mind; the mind improves the standards. Thus we have a continuous cycle.

JUDGMENT RESULTS WITH NO WASTE OF TIME.--Judgment is the outcome of learning the right way, and knowing that it is the right way.

There is none of the lost time of "trying out" various methods that exists under Traditional Management.

This power of judgment will not only enable the possessor to decide correctly as to the relative merits of different methods, but also somewhat as to the past history and possibilities of different workers.

This, again, ill.u.s.trates the wisdom of Scientific Management in promoting from the ranks, and thus providing that every member of the organization shall, ultimately, know from experience how to estimate and judge the work of others.

HABITS OF ATTENTION FORMED BY SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The good habits which result from teaching standard methods result in habits of attention. The standards aid the mind in holding a "selective att.i.tude,"[27] by presenting events in an orderly sequence. The conditions under which the work is done, and the incentives for doing it, provide that the attention shall be "lively and prolonged."

PRESCRIBED MOTIONS AFFORD RHYTHM AND aeSTHETIC PLEASURE.--The prescribed motions that result from motion study and time study, and that are arranged in cycles, afford a rhythm that allows the attention to "glide over some beats and linger on others," as Prof.

Stratton describes it, in a different connection.[28] So also the "perfectly controlled" movements, which fall under the direction of a guiding law, and which "obey the will absolutely,"[29] give an aesthetic pleasure and afford less of a tax upon the attention.