Modern Machine-Shop Practice Part 93

If the degree of contact is regulated by devices connected with the moving mechanism of the machine it is indirect, and may vary from causes acting upon that mechanism. But if it is regulated between the work and the moving piece that measures it, nothing remains but to devise some means of making its degree or amount constant for all measurements; so that if a duplicate requires to be compared with a standard, the latter may first be measured and the duplicate be afterwards measured for comparison.

All that is essential is that the two be touched with an equal degree of contact, and the most ingenious and delicate method yet devised to accomplish this result is that in the Whitworth machine, whose construction is as follows:--

In a box frame A, is provided a slide-way for two square bars, B, C, which are operated by micrometer screws, one of which is shown at J (the cap over B being removed to expose B and J to view). The bars B, C, are made truly square, and each side a true plane. The groove or slide-way in which they traverse is made with its two sides true planes at a right angle to each other; so that the bars in approaching or receding from each other move with their axes in a straight line. At the two ends of the frame the micrometer screws are afforded journal bearings. The ends of the bars B, C, are true planes at a right angle to the axes of B, C.

Bar B is operated as follows: Its operating screw J has a thread of 1/20 inch pitch; or in other words, there are twenty threads in an inch of its length. It is rotated by the hand-wheel F, whose rim-face is graduated by 250 equidistant lines of division. Moving F through a distance equal to that between, or from centre to centre of its lines of division, moves B through a distance equal to one five-thousandth part of an inch.

The screw in head I for operating bar C also has a pitch of 1/20 inch (or twenty threads in an inch of its length), and is driven by a worm-wheel W, having 200 teeth. This worm-wheel W is driven by a worm or tangent-screw H, having upon its stem a graduated wheel G, having 250 equidistant lines marked upon the face of its rim.

Suppose, then, that wheel G be moved through a distance equal to that between its lines of division, that is 1/250th of a rotation, then the worm H will move through 1/250th of a rotation, and the worm-wheel on the micrometer screw will be rotated 1/250th part of its pitch expressed in inches; because a full rotation of G would move the worm one rotation, and thus would move the worm-wheel on the screw one tooth only, whereas it has 200 teeth in its circ.u.mference; hence it is obvious that moving graduated wheel G, through a distance equal to one of its rim divisions will move the bar C the one-millionth of an inch; because:

Pitch of Rotation of Rotation of thread worm-wheel graduated wheel 1/20 inch 1/200 1/250 = 1/1000000

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1362.]

Fixed pointers, as K, Fig. 1362, enable the amount of movement or rotation of the respective wheels F, G, to be read.

A peculiarly valuable feature of this machine is the means by which it enables an equal pressure of contact to be had upon the standards, and the duplicates to be tested therewith. This feature is of great importance where fine and accurate measurements are to be taken. The means of accomplis.h.i.+ng this end are as follows:--

In the figures, D is a piece in position to be measured, and between it and the bar C is a feeler consisting of a small flat strip of steel, E E, having parallel sides, which are true planes.

When the pressure of contact upon this piece E E is such that if one end be supported independently the other will just be supported by friction, and yet may be easily moved between D and C by a touch of the finger, the adjustment is complete. At the sides of the frame A are two small brackets, shown at K, in the end view, Fig. 1362, E E being shown in full lines resting upon them, and in dotted lines with one end suspended. The contact-adjustment may thus be made with much greater delicacy and accuracy than in those machines in which the friction is applied to the graduated wheel-rim, because in the latter case, whatever friction there may be is multiplied by the difference in the amount of movement of the graduated rim and that of the bar touching the work.

All that is necessary in the Whitworth machine is to let E E be easy of movement under a slight touch, though capable of suspending one end by friction, and to note the position of the lines of graduation on C with reference to its pointer. By reason of having two operative bars, B, C, that which can be most readily moved may be operated to admit the piece or to adjust the bars to suit the length of the work, while that having the finer adjustive motion, as C, may be used for the final measuring only, thus preserving it from use, and therefore from wear as much as possible; or coa.r.s.er measurements may be made with one bar, and more minute ones with the other.

So delicate and accurate are the measurements taken with this machine, that it is stated by C. P. B. Sh.e.l.ley, C.E., in his "Workshop Appliances," that if well protected from changes of temperature and from dust, a momentary contact of the finger-nail will suffice to produce a measurable expansion by reason of the heat imparted to the metal. In an iron bar 36 inches long, a s.p.a.ce equal to half a division on the wheel G having been rendered distinctly measurable by it, this s.p.a.ce indicating an amount of expansion in the 36-inch bar equals the one two-millionth part of an inch!

The following figures, which are taken from _Mechanics_, represent a measuring machine made by the Betts Machine Company, of Wilmington, Delaware.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1363.]

Fig. 1363 shows a vertical section through the length of the machine, which consists of a bed carrying a fixed and an adjustable head, the fixed head carrying the measuring screw and vernier while the adjustable one carries a screw for approximate adjustment in setting the points of the standard bars.

These screws have a pitch of ten threads per inch, and the range of the measuring screw has a range of 4 inches, and the machine is furnished with firm standard steel bars (4-inch, 6-inch, 18-inch, and 24-inch).

The measuring points of the screws are of hardened steel, secured axially in line with the screws, and of two forms, with spherical and flat points, one set of each being used at a time. The larger wheel C is indexed to 1000 divisions, each division representing the ten-thousandth of an inch at the points; the smaller wheel has 100 divisions, each representing the one-thousandth part of an inch at the points. Beside, and almost in contact with, the larger wheel is a movable or adjustable pointer E, upon which the error of the screw is indexed for each inch of its length; the screw error is of the utmost importance when positive results are desired. The screw is immersed in oil to maintain a uniform temperature throughout its length, and to avoid particles of dust acc.u.mulating on its surface.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1364.]

As stated above, the readings are indexed to the ten-thousandth part of an inch, but variations to the hundred-thousandth part of an inch can be indicated. The machine will take in pieces to 24 inches in length, and to 4 inches in diameter. In measuring, the points are brought into easy contact and then expanded by turning the larger wheel, counting the revolutions or parts of revolutions to determine the distance between the points or the size of what is to be measured. The smaller machine is constructed so as to indicate by means of vernier attachment to the ten-thousandth part of an inch, and is of value in tool-rooms where standard and special tools are continually being prepared. By its use, gauges and other exact tools can be made, and at the same time keep gauges of all kinds to standard size by detecting wear or derangement.

The machine consists of a frame with one fixed head; the other head is moved by a screw; on both heads are hardened steel points. As with the larger machine, the screw error is indicated in such a manner as to permit the operator to guard against reproducing its error in its work.

These machines are used for making gauges, reamers, drills, mandrels, taps, and so on.

The errors that may exist in the pitch of the measuring screw are taken into account as follows: The points of the measuring machine should be brought into light contact, the position of index-wheel, vernier, and the adjustable pointer which has the screw error indexed upon it should be as in Fig. 1364; that is, the zeros on index-wheel and vernier should be in exact line, the vernier covering half of the zero line on pointer.

To measure 1/2 inch, for ill.u.s.tration, five complete revolutions of index-wheel should produce 1/2 inch, and would if we had a perfect screw, but the screw is not perfect, and we must add to the measurement already obtained one-half of the s.p.a.ce, stamped upon corrective devise, 0-1. This s.p.a.ce 0-1 represents the whole error in the screw from zero to 1 inch. The backlash of the screw should always be taken up.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1365.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1366.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1367.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1368.]

The details of this machine are as follows:--

In Fig. 1363 the points G are those between which the measuring is done, and the slide held by the nut K in position is adjusted by means of inch bars to the distance to be measured; H, the hand-wheel for moving one point, and F the wheel which moves the other. Fig. 1366 is a cross section of the movable head through the nut K and stud M, by which the movable head is adjusted, and Fig. 1365 is a cross section through the fixed head. The bars used in setting the machine are shown in Fig. 1367, and in Fig. 1368 the points of the measuring screws are shown on a large scale. The other figures show various details of the machine and their method of construction. The vernier, it will be observed, is a double one. This is shown in Fig. 1364, and is so arranged that the zero is made movable in order to correct the errors of the screw itself. These errors are carefully investigated and a record made of each. Thus, in Fig. 1363 the arm E is graduated so as to show the true zero for different parts of the screw; D can then be adjusted to a correct reading, and the divisions on the large wheel will then be correct to an exceedingly small fraction. This method of construction enables the machine to be used for indicating very minute variations of length.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1369.]

In Fig. 1369 is shown a measuring machine designed by Professor John E.

Sweet, late of Cornell University. The bed of the machine rests on three feet, so that the amount of support at each leg may remain the same, whether the surface upon which it rests be a true plane or otherwise.

This bed carries a headstock and a tailstock similar to a lathe. The tailstock carries a stationary feeler, and the headstock a movable one, operated horizontally by a screw pa.s.sing through a nut provided in the headstock, the axial lines of the two feelers being parallel and in the same plane. The diameters of the two feelers are equal at the ends, so that each feeler shall present the same amount of end area to the work.

The nut for the screw operating the headstock feeler is of the same length as the screw itself, so that the wear of the screw shall be equalized as near as possible from end to end, and not be the most at and near the middle of its length, as occurs when the thread on the screw is longer than that in the nut.

The pitch of the thread on the screw is 16 threads in an inch of length, hence one revolution of the screw advances the feeler 1/16 inch. The screw carries a wheel whose circ.u.mference is marked or graduated by 625 equidistant lines of division. If, therefore, this wheel be moved through a part of a rotation equal to one of these divisions, the feeler will move a distance equal to 1/625 of the 1/16th of an inch, which is the ten thousandth part of an inch, and as the bed of the machine is long enough to permit the feelers to be placed 12 inches apart, the machine will measure from zero to 12 inches by the ten-thousandth of an inch.

To a.s.sist the eye in reading the lines of division, each tenth line is marked longer than the rest, and every hundredth, still longer. The pitch of the screw being 16 threads to an inch enables the feeler to be advanced or retired (according to the direction of the rotation of the wheel) a sixteenth inch by a simple rotation of the wheel, an eighth inch by two wheel rotations, a thirty-second inch by a quarter rotation, and so on; and this renders the use of that machine very simple for testing the accuracy of caliper gauges, that are graduated to 1/8, 1/16, 1/32, 1/64th inch, and so on, such a gauge being shown (in the cut) between the feelers.

The bar or arm shown fixed to the headstock and pa.s.sing over the circ.u.mference of the wheel at the top affords a fixed line or point wherefrom to note the motion of the wheel, or in other words, the number of graduations it moves through at each wheel movement. It is evident that in a machine of this kind it is essential that the work to be measured have contact with the feelers, but that it shall not be sufficient to cause a strain or force that will spring or deflect either the work itself (if it be slight) or the parts of the machine. It is also essential that at excessive measurements the feelers shall touch the work with the same amount of force. The manner of attaining this end in Professor Sweet's machine is as follows: Upon the same shaft as the wheel is an arm having contact at both ends with the edge of the wheel rim whose face is graduated. This arm is free to rotate upon the shaft carrying the graduated wheel, which it therefore drives by multiple friction on its edges at diametrically opposite points; by means of a nut the degree of this friction may be adjusted so as to be just sufficient to drive the wheel without slip when the wheel is moved slowly. So long, then, as the feelers have no contact with the piece to be measured, the arm will drive the graduated wheel, but when contact does take place the wheel will be arrested and the arm will slip. The greatest accuracy will therefore be obtained if the arm be moved at an equal speed for all measurements.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1370.]

Fig. 1370 represents a Brown and Sharpe measuring machine for sheet metal. It consists of a stand A with a slotted upright having an adjusting screw C above, and a screw D, with a milled head and carrying a dial, pa.s.sing through its lower part. One turn of the screw, whose threads are 1/10th inch apart, causes one rotation of the dial, the edge of which is divided into one hundred parts, enabling measurements to be made to thousandths of an inch. The sheet-metal to be gauged is inserted in the slot of the upright. The adjusting-screw is set so that when the points of the two screws meet, the zero of the dial shall be opposite an index or pointer which shows the number of divisions pa.s.sed over, and is firmly secured by a set-screw.

Next in importance to line and end measurements is the accurate division of the circle, to accomplish which the following means have been taken.

What is known as "Troughton's" method (which was invented by Edward Troughton about 1809) is as follows: A disk or circle of 4 feet radius was accurately turned, both on its face and its inner and outer edges. A roller was next provided of such diameter that it revolved sixteen times on its own axis, while rolling once round the outer edge of the circle.

This roller was pivoted in a framework which could be slid freely, yet tightly, along the circle, the roller meanwhile revolving by frictional contact on the outer edge. The roller was also, after having been properly adjusted as to size, divided as accurately as possible into sixteen equal parts by lines parallel to its axis. While the frame carrying the roller was moved once round along the circle, the points of contact of the roller divisions with the circle were accurately observed by two microscopes attached to the frames, one of which commanded the ring on the circle near its edge, which was to receive the divisions, and the other viewed the roller divisions. The exact points of contact thus ascertained were marked with faint dots, and the meridian circle thereby divided into 256 very nearly equal parts.

The next part of the operation was to find out and tabulate the errors of these dots, which are called apparent errors, because the error of each dot was ascertained on the supposition that all its neighbors were correct. For this purpose two microscopes, which we shall call A and C, were taken with cross-wires and micrometer adjustments, consisting of a screw and head divided into 100 divisions, 50 of which read in the one and 50 in the opposite direction. These microscopes, A and B, were fixed so that their cross-wires respectively bisected the dots 0 and 128, which were supposed to be diametrically opposite. The circle was now turned half way round on its axis, so that dot 128 coincided with the wire of A, and should dot 0 be found to coincide with B, then the dots were sure to be 180 apart. If not, the cross-wire of B was moved till it coincided with the dot 0 and the number of divisions of micrometer head noted. Half this number gave clearly the error of dot 128 and was tabulated plus or minus according as the arcual distance between 0 and 128 was found to exceed or fall short of the removing part of the circ.u.mference. The microscope B was now s.h.i.+fted, A remaining opposite dot 0 as before, till its wire bisected dot 64, and by giving the circle one-quarter of a turn on its axis, the difference of the arcs between dots 0 and 64, and between 64 and 128 was obtained. The half of this distance gave the apparent error of dot 64, which was tabulated with its proper sign. With the microscope A still in the same position, the error of dot 192 was obtained, and in the same way, by s.h.i.+fting B to dot 32, the errors of dots 32, 96, 160 and 224 were successively ascertained. By proceeding in this way the apparent errors of all the 256 dots were tabulated.

In order to make this method fully understood, we have prepared the accompanying diagrams, which clearly show the plan pursued.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1371.]

Fig. 1371 ill.u.s.trates the plan of dividing the large circle by means of the roller B.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1372.]

Fig. 1372 shows the general adjustment of the microscope for the purpose of proving the correctness of the divisions.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1373.]

Fig. 1373 shows the location of the microscope over the points 0 and 128.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1374.]

Fig. 1374 shows the circle turned half-way round, the points 0 and 128 coinciding with the cross threads of the microscope.