A Popular History of the Art of Music Part 25

ROBERT SCHUMANN.]

In person Schumann was of medium height, inclining to corpulency, with a very soft and gentle walk and a most invincible habit of silence.

Old residents of Leipsic remember his visits to the rehearsals at the _Gewandhaus_, where for a whole evening he would sit with his handkerchief held over his mouth, never speaking a word to any one from the beginning to the end, and going away as silently as he came.

Nevertheless, it was universally recognized that upon these occasions Schumann heartily enjoyed himself, and to use his own words again, he and the music "perfectly understood one another." His mind was intensely active and fanciful. This is seen in all his pieces. The rapidity of the musical thought, the strong contrasts of mood, the proximity of remote chords and modulations, are all indications of this mental trait. It was this, also, which finally destroyed him. His mind became unbalanced, and after intermittent attacks of melancholy his life ended with two years' almost entire oblivion of reason. In spite of his comparative unpopularity in his own day, no one of the romantic masters has left so strong an impression upon the composers who came after him. In my opinion, the four great names which have been most operative in establis.h.i.+ng forms of musical thought and in creating wholly original and highly poetic and masterly tone-poems by means of those forms, are Bach, Beethoven, Schumann and Wagner, and each one of the earlier masters has in his work the prophecy of most of the qualities of those who come after, while each of the later reflects the characteristic traits of his predecessors.

CHAPTER x.x.xVII.

ITALIAN OPERA DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

The strongest personality of the Italian composers (though by no means the loveliest), at the beginning of the nineteenth century, was that of Gasparo Spontini (1774-1851). He was born of peasant stock in the Roman states and educated at Naples, where his boyish successes were made. In 1803 he went to Paris, where he composed several operas with very poor success. Nevertheless, having full confidence in his own powers, he was not discouraged, and in 1804 his one-act opera of "Milton" was performed successfully at the _Theatre Feydeau_. He had already begun his "_La Vestale_," which was brought out in 1807, and immediately achieved a remarkable success. Spontini was appointed "_Compositeur Particulaire_" to the Empress Josephine, in spite of which an oratorio of his was hissed from the stage in Holy Week of the same year that his "_Vestale_" had been so favorably received. The popularity of "The Vestal" continued to grow, so that it had been performed more than 200 times in Paris before 1824. In Italy and Germany, where its career began, in 1811, its popularity was similar.

His next opera was "_Fernand Cortez_," (1809), afterward materially improved. These two works mark the highest point reached by Spontini.

They are brilliant, martial, vigorous and spectacular, and the legitimate predecessors of the Meyerbeer grand operas. Spontini's smaller works failed, and in 1819 negotiations were concluded with King William III, who had been impressed with "_La Vestale_" when he had visited Paris, whereby for twenty years Spontini was made "director general" of the opera in Berlin. In this position he produced a number of other works, the best being "_Nurmahal_" (1822), "_Alcidor_" (1825) and "_Agnes von Hohenstaufen_" (1829). Spontini was a vigorous director, but unprincipled, vain and narrow. Nevertheless, at his concerts he produced the fifth and seventh symphonies of Beethoven for the first time in Berlin, as well as parts of the great Bach ma.s.s in B minor, and much other great music. Opposition to his tyranny culminated in 1842 by his dismission from the directors.h.i.+p, Meyerbeer being his successor. His popularity paled from the production of Weber's "_Der Freischutz_" in 1821. Spontini died in his native town of Majolitat.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 88.

ROSSINI.]

The Italian composer most famous in the earlier part of the century was Gioacchino Antonio Rossini (1792-1868), a native of Pesaro, a small town on the Adriatic. After a short course at the Conservatory of Verona, the boy commenced to compose, and no less than thirteen short pieces preceded his first really popular opera, "_Tancredi_,"

which was produced at _La Fenice_, in Venice, in 1813. The success of this work led to many others, among which the best known are "The Italian in Algiers," "The Turk in Italy," and (in 1816) no less than five operas in one year--"_Torvaldo e Dorliska_," "The Barber of Seville," "_La Gazetta_" and "_Otello_," his first serious opera. He composed with the utmost facility. "The Barber," one of the most successful operas ever performed, and the one of Rossini's works which bids fair to outlast the rest, was composed and mounted within a month. For this work he received eighty pounds sterling. It was not at first successful. In 1823 he brought out "_Semiramide_," which was only moderately successful at first. The next turn in Rossini's fortune found him in London, where he had accepted an engagement with the manager of King's Theater, and here he produced a number of his former works with moderate success. Rossini himself appeared upon the stage and sang the solos in a cantata which he had composed in honor of the King, George IV. He turned many honest pennies during his London engagement by acting as accompanist at private _soirees_ for a fee of 50. At the end of five months he found himself in possession of 7,000, with which he made a graceful retreat to Paris, where he accepted the musical direction of the _Theatre Italienne_, at the salary of 800 per year. This was in 1826. After the expiration of his engagement at this theater several of his works were produced at the Grand Opera, among which were the "Siege of Corinth" and "_Moise_"

(March 27, 1827). This work, which is given in England as an oratorio, was a revised edition of his opera of "Mose," which he had written for Naples five years before. The most taking number in it is the famous prayer, which has been played and sung in every form possible for a popular melody. The operatic career of Rossini ended in 1829 with the production of his opera of "William Tell," at the Paris _Academie_, with a brilliant cast. In this work he forswears florid writing, and makes a serious effort at dramatic characterization. The opera is extremely melodious, and a very great advance over any of his former productions. Having now acc.u.mulated a fortune, he retired from the stage and lived the remainder of his life near Paris in elegant leisure, composing a solemn ma.s.s and a few other sacred works, but no other operas.

In reviewing the career of this singularly gifted Italian melodist, it is impossible to resist the conclusion that his talents were worthy of a n.o.bler development. Among his sacred works the "_Stabat Mater_" is the most popular. It contains some very beautiful chromatic writing, and is really an art work of distinguished merit. His latest work was the "_Messe Solennelle_" (1864). Rossini was fond of good living, very witty in conversation, and his house was frequented by the most brilliant wits and the best artists of the thirty years between "William Tell" and his death.

Upon the whole, the most brilliant master of Italian opera during this period was Gaetano Donizetti (1797-1848), who was born at Bergamo and educated at Naples. His first opera was produced in Vienna in 1818, but his first complete success was "_Anna Bolena_," which was written for Milan in 1830, the princ.i.p.al parts having been taken by Pasta and Rubini. Soon after this followed "_L'Elisir d'Amore_" (1832), "_Lucia di Lammermoor_" (Naples, 1835), "_Lucrezia Borgia_" (1834), "_Belisario_" (1836), "_Poliuto_" (1838), "_La Fille du Regiment_"

(1840), "_La Favorita_," "_Linda di Chamounix_" (1842), "_Don Pasquale_" (1843). Besides these well known works there were many others, the total number reaching sixty-three, brought out in various Italian theaters and in Paris. Donizetti's traits as a composer are pleasant melody, effective concerted pieces (as, for instance, the s.e.xtette in "_Lucia_," which is perhaps the best concerted piece in Italian opera), and a good constructive ability. Like Rossini he was a writer of florid music, and "_Lucia_" remains one of the favorite numbers of _coloratura_ singers to the present day, which, considering that more than fifty years have intervened since it was composed, is a great compliment.

Vincenzo Bellini (1802-1835) was born at Catania, in Switzerland, the son of an organist. He was educated at Naples under Zingarelli, his first opera having been composed in 1826, while he was still a member of the Conservatory. It was "_Bianca e Fernando_," produced at San Carlos. His next work, "_Il Pirata_," was written for _La Scala_ in Milan, the tenor part having been especially designed for the celebrated Rubini. Among the other successful operas of this composer were "_I Capuletti e i Montecchi_" (in 1830), "_La Sonnambula_" (1831, at _La Scala_), "_Norma_" and "_I Puritani_." It was this latter work which contains a brilliant duet for two ba.s.ses, "_Suona la Tromba_,"

of which Rossini wrote from Paris to a friend at Milan, "It is unnecessary for me to write of the duet for two ba.s.ses. You must have heard it." Bellini was essentially a melodist, a lyric composer of ideallic _naivete_. Of dramatic power he had very little. His orchestration is simple, although frequently very sonorous. If he had lived to the age of Donizetti or of Rossini it is not impossible that much greater works would have emanated from his pen, for in his next great successor we have an example of such a growth under conditions less favorable than those promised in Bellini's case.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 89.

GIUSEPPE VERDI.]

The most vigorous of all the Italian composers of this epoch is Giuseppe Verdi, who was born at Roncole, October 9, 1813, his father having been a small inn keeper. The boy was of a quiet, melancholy character, with one pa.s.sion--music; and when he was seven years of age his father purchased a spinet for his practice. When he was ten years old he was appointed organist of the Church in his native town. At this time his necessary expenditures amounted to about $22 per year, and his salary as organist $7.20, which after many urgent appeals was increased to $8. In addition he had certain perquisites from weddings and funerals, amounting to about $10 per year. In this way he continued until he was sixteen, having by this time become conductor of a philharmonic society, and the composer of quite a number of works, at the little town of Dusseto. He went to Milan, where he was refused admission to the Conservatory on the ground of his showing no special apt.i.tude for music. Nevertheless, he persevered in his chosen vocation, receiving lessons of Rolla, the conductor of _La Scala_. He studied diligently for two years, Mozart's "_Don Giovanni_" being a part of his daily exercise. After this he returned for five years to his country life, and by the time he was twenty-five he was back again in Milan, in the hope of securing the performance of his opera, "_Oberto_." This for quite a long time he was unable to do, but at length in 1839 it was performed at _La Scala_. The moderate success of this work secured him an engagement to produce an opera every eight months for Milan or Vienna. But his first work, a comic opera which the managers demanded, "_Un Giorno di Regno_," was a dead failure, and disgusted the composer to such a point that he declared that he would never write again. At this time Verdi was the victim of most severe affliction. In addition to poverty, within the s.p.a.ce of about two months he experienced the loss of his two children and of his wife, to whom he was devotedly attached. After living some time in Milan, he received a copy of the libretto, "_Il Proscritto_," and in 1842 it was performed. It was well staged, and achieved an unqualified success.

Then followed "_I Lombardi_" (1843), "_Ernani_" (1844), "_I Due Foscari_" (1844), "_Attila_" (1846), "Macbeth" (1847), "_Rigoletto_"

(1851), "_Il Trovatore_" (1853), "_La Traviata_" (1853), "_Les Vepres Siciliennes_" (1855), "_Un Ballo in Maschera_" (1859), "_La Forza del Destino_" (1862), "_Don Carlos_" (1867), "_Aida_" (1871), "_Otello_"

(1887). In addition to these works he has written a great "Requiem Ma.s.s," and many smaller works. Besides the operas above mentioned there were several others now mostly forgotten, the total number being twenty-nine; and there is not one of them that does not contain more or less of striking melody, with effective concerted pieces and choruses. Verdi's melody was much more vigorous than that of either of his predecessors. In "_Trovatore_" there are ten or twelve numbers which have become famous in the barrel-organ repertory. His instrumentation was very full and sonorous, and his dramatic instinct excellent. We do not find the long roulades and ornamental pa.s.sages according to the taste of his predecessors, but instead of them, clear, sharp, concise, manly melodies--unfortunately, however, they are so near the line of the vulgar that only a refined treatment on the part of the singer can save them for poetry and beauty.

Beginning with "_Aida_," a very important change can be seen in Verdi's style. By the time this work was undertaken the Wagnerian theories were attracting general attention, and it was impossible that a man of Verdi's intellectual force should have failed to be affected by them. "_Aida_" is much more refined and dramatically truthful than any of those before it. As the composer was now an old man nothing farther was expected from his pen. Nevertheless, in "_Otello_," he has given the world a masterpiece of a still higher order, the music throughout being subservient to the story, while the dramatic handling of the work is masterly in the extreme. For this he was in part indebted to his librettist, the distinguished poet and composer, Signor Arrigo Boito. The strangest thing in regard to Verdi is that at the present writing (1891) he is engaged upon a comic opera, "Falstaff," a subject which he says has interested him for about forty years, but which until now he has never had time to undertake. As a man and a patriot Verdi is held in the highest possible honor in Italy; and for his own original genius, as displayed in his works, and especially in his apt.i.tude for progress, no less than for his dignified and simple private life, he deserves to be admired as the foremost Italian master of the present century.

One of the most earnest among Italian composers and musicians is Arrigo Boito (1842), who, from an origin which is German from his mother's side, possesses an earnestness and force in music not usual in southern lands. After composing two cantatas, which had a good success, his grand opera of "_Mefistofele_" was produced at Milan in 1868, and later in other leading cities. Two more operas "Hero and Leander" and "Nero" are not yet published. M. Boito is equally celebrated in his own country as musician and as poet. In the latter capacity he prepared his own librettos, besides furnis.h.i.+ng that of "_Otello_" to Verdi and "_La Gioconda_" to Ponchielli. He has published several books of poems, and other operatic books. As composer he partakes much of the spirit of Wagner. He has yet another opera nearly completed, but in 1891 little is known of it. It is called "_Orestiade_."

Amilcare Ponchielli (1834-1866) is generally regarded in Italy as having been the most distinguished Italian composer after Verdi. He was educated at Milan, but his early triumphs were made elsewhere, his famous "_I Promessi Sposi_" having been performed there only in 1872.

His princ.i.p.al works are the preceding, which was composed in 1856, "_La Savojarda_" (1861), "_Roderico_" (1864), "_La Stella del Monte_"

(1867), "_La Gioconda_," his master work, produced at _La Scala_, 1876, and "_Marion Delorme_" (1885). His music occupies a middle ground between the melodiousness of the Italian composers of the early part of the century and the seriousness of later German opera.

In spite of the few examples reaching foreign countries, there is a continuous and rather abundant production of light and serious operas in Italy, every princ.i.p.al theater making it a point to bring out one or more new works every season. The best of these, after a long interval, become known abroad. It is a great mistake to suppose that the few Italian operas of recent date performed in England and America adequately represent the present state of Italian art.

CHAPTER x.x.xVIII.

FRENCH OPERATIC COMPOSERS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

In the earlier part of the nineteenth century the operatic stage of Paris shared with those of Berlin and Dresden the honor of producing brilliant novelties by the best composers. In France there had been a persistent cultivation of this province of musical creation, and many talented composers have appeared upon the scene of the Grand Opera and that of the _Opera Comique_. French opera has developed into a genre of its own, rhythmically well regulated, instrumented in a pleasing and attractive manner, and staged with considerable reference to spectacular display.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 90.

AUBER.]

The oldest of these masters to achieve distinction, and the one most successful in gaining the ear of other countries than France, was Daniel Francois Esprit Auber (1782-1870). He was born in Caen, in Normandy, of a family highly gifted and artistic in temperament.

Nevertheless, his father intended him for a merchant, and sent him to England in 1804, in the hope that the study of commercial success there might wean him from his love of music. But the boy came back more musical than ever. After composing several pieces, a little opera, a ma.s.s, etc., his first opera to be publicly performed was "_Le Sejour Militaire_." During the fifteen years next following he wrote a succession of light operas for the smaller theaters of Paris, most of them with librettos by Scribe. No one of these works had more than a temporary success, and the names are not sufficiently important to be given here. At length, in 1828, he produced his master work, "_La Muette di Portici_," otherwise known as "_Masaniello_," which at once placed its author upon the pinnacle of fame. This was an opera upon the largest scale, and was the first in order of the three great master works which adorned the Paris stage during this and the three years following. The others were Rossini's "Tell" in 1829, and Meyerbeer's "Robert" in 1831. The subject was fortunately related to the spirit of the times, Masaniello having been leader of the insurgents in Naples. The work well deserved its success, since for melody and pleasing effects it has rarely been surpa.s.sed. The overture is still much played as a concert number, but the opera itself has nearly left the stage, excepting in Germany, where it still has a distinguished place. All his later works were lighter than "_Masaniello_." They were "_La Fiancee_" (1829), the extremely melodious and popular "_Fra Diavolo_" (1830) and many others, for more than twenty years still. Among them were "The Bronze Horse" (in 1835), "_Le Domino Noir_" (in 1837), and "The Crown Diamonds" (1831). Auber was elected member of the Inst.i.tute in 1829, and in 1842 succeeded Cherubini as director of the Conservatory. He was an extremely witty and charming man, beloved by all.

Contemporaneous with Auber, but more allied to the genius of Boieldieu, was Louis Joseph Ferdinand Herold, (1791-1833). After studying at the Conservatory and composing a number of operas which failed, or had but moderate success, he brought out "_Zampa_," in 1831. This work had an extraordinary success, and its overture is still often heard. Another work "_Le Pre aux Clercs_," (1832), is generally esteemed in France more highly than "_Zampa_," but outside of his native country public opinion universally regards the latter as his best work. Herold's operas are extremely well conceived from a dramatic point of view, and his melody has much of the sweet and flowing quality of the best Italian. His concerted numbers also are well made, and in all respects he is to be regarded as a master of high rank within the province of light opera, verging indeed upon the confines of the romantic type, like that of Weber.

The true successor of Boieldieu, with perhaps somewhat less of originality, was Adolphe Charles Adam, (1803-1856), son of a piano teacher in the Conservatory at Paris. His most lasting work was "_Le Postillon de Lonjumeau_" (1836), in which the German tenor Wachtel made himself so famous. Most of the other productions of this clever, but not deep, composer, are now forgotten. In their day they pleased.

The most important work of the last half century of French opera was the "_Faust_" of Charles Francois Gounod (1818- ), produced in 1859.

Gounod was born and educated at Paris, took the prize of Rome in 1837, after composing quite a number of works of a semi-religious character, in which direction he has always had a strong bias. His first opera was produced in 1854, "_La Nonne Sanglante_." In 1852 he was made director of the Orpheonists, the male part singers of Paris, numbering many thousands, somewhat answering to the organization of the Tonic Sol-fa in England. "_Faust_" made an epoch in French opera. Its rich and sensuous music, its love melodies of melting tenderness, and the cleverness of the instrumentation, as well as its pleasing character, combine to place it in a category by itself. This was the beginning and the end of Gounod, for in his other works, while there is much cleverness and melodiousness, there is also much reminder of "_Faust_." Perhaps the best of his later operas are "_Romeo et Juliette_" (1867), and "_Mireille_" (1864). Among the others were "_Cinq-Mars_," "_Polyeucte_," "_Le Tribute de Zamora_." He has also written an oratorio, "The Redemption," produced at Birmingham in 1882, many numbers in which are truly imposing. As a whole the work is mystical and sensuous, rather than strong or inspired. A continuation of this work "_Mors et Vita_" was given at Birmingham in 1885, and the following year several times in America, under the direction of Mr.

Theodore Thomas. In this work, a part of the text of which consists of the Latin hymn "_Dies Irae_," Gounod contrives to repeat certain of the sensational effects of Berlioz's work. Both these oratorios belong to an intermediate category in oratorio, sensational effects possible only in the concert room intervening with others planned entirely in a devotional and mystic spirit. As a composer, Gounod has two elements of strength.

He is first of all a lyrical composer of unusual merit, as can be seen in his "Oh that We Two were Maying," "Nazareth," "There Is a Green Hill Far Away," etc. His second element of greatness is his talent for well sounding and deliciously blending instrumentation, in which respect he is one of the best representatives of the French school.

This quality is happily shown upon a small scale, in connection with the other already mentioned, in his famous "_Ave Maria_," with violin and organ obligato, superimposed upon the first prelude in Bach's "Well Tempered Clavier." Unfortunately his structural ability is not equal to the strain of elaborate dramatic works, in which the interest greatly depends upon the music following the complications of the drama. In "Faust," and in all his other operas, the songs are the main attractions--the songs and the choruses. The finales are poorly constructed, with little invention and less progress of dramatic intensity.

Among the better composers of the later French school was Felix Marie Victor Ma.s.se (1822-1884), who experienced the usual fortunes of the better cla.s.s of French composers, having taken the prize of Rome in 1844 and produced his first opera, "_La Chanteuse Voilee_," in 1850, which was followed by his "_Galathea_" in 1852 and the "Marriage of Jeanette" in 1853. Encouraged by these successes he produced a large number of operas in Italy, of which the best were "_La Reine Topaze_"

(1856) and "_Les Saisons_" (1855). In 1860 he became chorus master at the Academy of Music, and in 1866 professor of composition at the Conservatory. In 1872 he was elected to the Inst.i.tute as successor of Auber. In addition to the works already mentioned he produced "Paul and Virginia" (1866), and several others, besides a number of songs.

His last opera, "_Le Mort de Cleopatre_," was written during his long sickness, and on the whole was not a success.

Another pleasing French composer is Jules emile Frederic Ma.s.senet (1842- ), who took the prize of Rome in 1863, and in 1867 produced his first opera, "_La Grande Tante_." In addition to this he composed a number of operas, "_Le Roi de Lah.o.r.e_" (1877), "_Marie Madeleine_"

(1873), an oratorio, and "Eve" in 1875. He has also written a number of orchestral suites which have been very popular in all countries.

His latest work, "_Le Mage_," was produced at the Grand Opera, Paris, March, 1891.

One of the most brilliant and versatile of the French musicians of this generation is M. Camille Saint-Saens (1835- ), a virtuoso upon the piano and organ, and an orchestral tone-poet of very rare quality.

Educated in the Conservatory, he composed his first symphony when he was sixteen, and was organist of the Church of St. Marri at the age of eighteen. In 1858 he became organist at the Madeleine. He has produced a number of operas, of which "_Le Timbre d'Argent_" (1887), "Samson and Delilah" (1877), and "_Etienne Marcel_" (1879), "Henry VIII"

(1883) and "_Ascanio_," produced in 1890 at the Grand Opera. In addition to these, Saint-Saens has produced a large number of orchestral pieces, including "_Le Mouet d'Omphale_," "_Le Dance Macabre_," and other symphonic poems of the programme character. He has also written several oratorios, of which "The Deluge" is the most important, and a large amount of chamber and pianoforte music. He is a brilliant writer about music, and is favorably known in Germany and all the rest of Europe as a virtuoso upon the piano and organ. His second concerto for piano is one of the best virtuoso pieces for that instrument. In his "_Melodie et Harmonie_," a collection of newspaper essays, he discusses many interesting questions. His fame with posterity is more likely to rest upon his orchestral pieces, which are extremely clever and interesting, than upon his operas. Personally he is said to be very witty and entertaining. He has been a member of the Inst.i.tute since 1874.

Another French composer, versatile and well gifted in orchestral composition, is Clement Philibert Leo Delibes (1848- ). After his education at the Conservatory, and his service as accompanist at the Grand Opera, he received, in 1866, a commission to compose a ballet, "_La Source_," in which he displayed such a wealth of melody and such fortunate rhythm that his talent was henceforth unmistakable. He has since composed a large number of ballets, many of which are known in all parts of the world, such as "Sylvia"; also a large number of songs. His princ.i.p.al opera was "Lakme" (1883). He is a professor at the Conservatory, a member of the Legion of Honor, and the successor of Victor Ma.s.se at the Inst.i.tute.

Still another very talented composer of orchestral music is edouard Victor Antoine Lalo (1823- ), who was originally a violinist in a favorite string quartette. He has composed a large amount of orchestral music, a violin concerto in F (1874), "_Symphonie Espagnole_" (1875), for violin and orchestra, a rhapsody "_Norvegienne_," and many other orchestral works, besides several operas, of which the "_Roi d'Ys_" (1888) is the most important. He received the Cross of the Legion of Honor in 1880, and is one of the best of the French composers. Many of his works have been played by Theodore Thomas.

Georges Bizet (1838-1875) is best known as the composer of "_Carmen_"

(1875). He had previously produced a considerable number of smaller works, which had been but moderately successful. In "_Carmen_,"