Earth and Sky Every Child Should Know Part 3

The lower windows of exposed seaside houses are dimmed by the sand that picks away the smooth surface outside, making it ground gla.s.s by the same process used in the factory. Lighthouses have this difficulty in keeping their windows clear. The "lantern" itself is sometimes reached by the sand grains. That is the cupola in which burns the great light that warns vessels away from the rocks and tells the captain where he is.

In the Far Western States the telegraph poles and fence posts are soon cut off at the ground by the flinty knives the wind carries. These are the grains of sand that are blown along just above the ground. The trees are killed by having their bark girdled in this way. The sand-storms which in the orange and lemon region of California are called "Santa Anas" sometimes last two or three days, and damage the trees by piercing the tender bark with the needle-pointed sand.

Wind-driven soil, gathered from the sides of bare hills and mountains, fills many valleys of China with a fine, hard-packed material called "loess." In some places it is hundreds of feet deep. The people dig into the side of a hill of this loess and carry out the diggings, making themselves homes, of many rooms, with windows, doors, and solid walls and floors, all in one solid piece, like the chambered house a mole makes underground in the middle of a field. So compact is the loess that there is no danger of a cave-in.

The hills of sand piled up on the southern sh.o.r.e of Lake Michigan, and at Provincetown, at the toe of Cape Cod, are the work of the wind. On almost any sandy sh.o.r.e these "dunes" are common. The long slope is toward the beach that furnishes the sand. The wind does the building. Up the slope it climbs, then drops its burden, which slides to the bottom of an abrupt landward steep. There is a gradual movement inland if the strongest winds come from the water. The s.h.i.+fting of the dunes threatens to cover fertile land near them. In the desert regions, the border-land is always in danger of being taken back again, even though it has been reclaimed from the desert and cultivated for long years.

Besides tearing down, carrying away, and building up again the fragments of the earth's crust, the wind does much that makes the earth a pleasant planet to live on. It drives the clouds over the land, bringing rains and snows and scattering them where they will bless the thirsty ground and feed the springs and brooks and rivers. It scatters the seeds of plants, and thus plants forests and prairies and lovely mountain slopes, making the wonderful wild gardens that men find when they first enter and explore a new region. The trade winds blow the warm air of the Tropics north and south, making the climate of the northern countries milder than it would otherwise be. Sea winds blow coolness over the land in summer, and cool lake breezes temper the inland regions. From the snow-capped mountains come the winds that refresh the hot, tired worker in the valleys.

Everywhere the wind blows, the life-giving oxygen is carried. This is what we mean when we speak of fresh air. Stagnant air is as unwholesome as stagnant water. Constant moving purifies both. So we must give the wind credit for some of the greatest blessings that come into our lives.

Light and warmth come from the sun. Pure water and pure air are gifts the bountiful earth provides. Without them there would be no life on the earth.

RAIN IN SUMMER

How beautiful is the rain!

After the dust and heat, In the broad and fiery street, In the narrow lane, How beautiful is the rain!

How it clatters along roofs, Like the tramp of hoofs!

How it gushes and struggles out From the throat of the overflowing spout!

Across the window-pane

It pours and pours; And swift and wide, With a muddy tide, Like a river down the gutter roars The rain, the welcome rain!

The sick man from his chamber looks At the twisted brooks; He can feel the cool Breath of each little pool; His fevered brain Grows calm again, And he breathes a blessing on the rain.

--HENRY W. LONGFELLOW.

WHAT BECOMES OF THE RAIN?

The clouds that sail overhead are made of watery vapour. Sometimes they look like great ma.s.ses of cotton-wool against the intense blue of the sky. Sometimes they are set like fleecy plumes high above the earth.

Sometimes they hang like a sullen blanket of gray smoke, so low they almost touch the roofs of the houses. Indeed, they often rest on the ground and then we walk through a dense fog.

In their various forms, clouds are like wet sponges, and when they are wrung dry they disappear--all their moisture falls upon the earth. When the air is warm, the water comes in the form of rain. If it is cold, the drops are frozen into hail, sleet, or snow.

All of the water in the oceans, in the lakes and rivers, great and small, all over the earth, comes from one source, the clouds. In the course of a year enough rain and snow fall to cover the entire surface of the globe to a depth of forty inches. This quant.i.ty of water amounts to 34,480 barrels on every acre. What becomes of it all?

We can easily understand that all the seas and the other bodies of water would simply add forty inches to their depth, and many would become larger, because the water would creep up on their gradually sloping sh.o.r.es. We have to account for the rain and the snow that fall upon the dry land and disappear.

Go out after a drenching rainstorm and look for the answer to this question. The gullies along the street are full of muddy, running water.

There are pools of standing water on level places, but on every slope the water is hurrying away. The ground is so sticky that wagons on country roads may mire to the hubs in the pasty earth. There is no use in trying to work in the garden or to mow the lawn. The sod is soft as a cus.h.i.+on, and the garden soil is water-soaked below the depth of a spading-fork.

The sun comes out, warm and bright, and the flagstones of the sidewalk soon begin to steam like the wooden planks of the board walk. The sun is changing the surface water into steam which rises into the sky to form a part of another bank of clouds. The earth has soaked up quant.i.ties of the water that fell. If we followed the racing currents in the gullies we should find them pouring into sewer mains at various points, and from these underground pipes the water is conducted to some outlet like a river. All of the streams are swollen by the hundreds of brooks and rivulets that are carrying the surface water to the lowest level.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Rain and wind are the sculptors that have carved these strange castles out of a rocky table]

[Ill.u.s.tration: All the water in the seas, lakes, rivers, and springs came out of the clouds]

So we can see some of the rainfall going back to the sky, some running off through rivulets to the sea, and some soaking into the ground. It will be interesting to follow this last portion as it gradually settles into the earth. The soil will hold a certain quant.i.ty, for it is made up of fine particles, all separated by air s.p.a.ces, and it acts like a sponge. In seasons of drought and great heat the sun will draw this soil water back to the surface, by forming cracks in the earth, and fine, hair-like tubes, through which the vapour may easily rise. The gardener has to rake the surface of the beds frequently to stop up these channels by which the sun is stealing the precious moisture.

The water that the surface soil cannot absorb sinks lower and lower into the ground. It finds no trouble to settle through layers of sand, for the particles do not fit closely together. It may come to a bed of clay which is far closer. Here progress is r.e.t.a.r.ded. The water may acc.u.mulate, but finally it will get through, if the clay is not too closely packed. Again it may sink rapidly through thick beds of gravel or sand. Reaching another bed of clay which is stiffer by reason of the weight of the earth above it, the water may find that it cannot soak through. The only way to pa.s.s this clay barrier is to fill the basin, and to trickle over the edge, unless a place is found in the bottom where some looser substance offers a pa.s.sage. Let us suppose that a concave clay basin of considerable depth is filled with water-soaked sand. At the very lowest point on the edge of this basin a stream will slowly trickle out, and will continue to flow, as long as water from above keeps the bowl full.

It is not uncommon to find on hillsides, in many regions, little brooks whose beginnings are traceable to springs that gush out of the ground.

The spring fills a little basin, the overflow of which is the brook. If the source of this spring could be traced underground, we might easily follow it along some loose rock formation until we come to a clay basin like the one described above. We might have to go down quite a distance and then up again to reach the level of this supply, but the level of the water at the mouth of the spring can never be higher than the level of the water in the underground supply basin.

Often in hot summers springs "go dry." The level of water in the supply basin has fallen below the level of the spring. We must wait until rainfall has added to the depth of water in the basin before we can expect any flow into the pool which marks the place where the brook begins.

Suppose we had no beds of clay, but only sand and gravel under the surface soil. We should then expect the water to sink through this loose material without hindrance, and, finding its way out of the ground, to flow directly into the various branches of the main river system of our region. After a long rain we should have the streams flooded for a few days, then dry weather and the streams all low, many of them entirely dry until the next rainstorm.

Instead of this, the soil to a great depth is stored with water which cannot get away, except by the slow process by which the springs draw it off. This explains the steady flow of rivers. What should we do for wells if it were not for the water basins that lie below the surface? A shallow well may go dry. Its owner digs deeper, and strikes a lower "vein" of water that gives a more generous supply. In the regions of the country where the drift soil, left by the great ice-sheet, lies deepest, the glacial boulder clay is very far down. The surface water, settling from one level to another, finally reaches the bottom of the drift.

Wells have to be deep that reach this water bed.

The water follows the slope of this bed and is drained into the ocean, sometimes by subterranean channels, because the bed of the nearest river is on a much higher level. So we must not think that the springs contain only the water that feeds the rivers. They contain more.

The layers of clay at different levels, from the surface down to the bottom of the drift, form water basins and make it possible for people to obtain a water supply without the expense of digging deep wells. The clayey subsoil, only a few feet below the surface, checks the downward course of the water, so that the sun can gradually draw it back, and keep a supply where plant roots can get it. The vapour rising keeps the air humid, and furnishes the dew that keeps all plant life comfortable and happy even through the hot summer months.

Under the drift lie layers of stratified rock, and under these are the granites and other fire-formed rocks, the beginning of those rock ma.s.ses which form the solid bulk of the globe. We know little about the core of the earth, but the granites that are exposed in mountain ridges are found to have a great capacity for absorbing water, so it is not unlikely that much surface water soaks into the rock foundations and is never drained away into the sea.

The water in our wells is often hard. It becomes so by pa.s.sing through strata of soil and rock made, in part, at least, of limestone, which is readily dissolved by water which contains some acid. Soil water absorbs acids from the decaying vegetation,--the dead leaves and roots of plants. Rain water is soft, and so is the water in ponds that have muddy basins, dest.i.tute of lime. Water in the springs and wells of the Mid-Western States is "hard" because it percolates through limestone material. In many parts of this country the well water is "soft,"

because of the scarcity of limestone in the soil.

I have seen springs around which the plants and the pebbles were coated with an incrustation of lime. "Petrified moss" is the name given to the plants thus turned to stone. The reason for this deposit is clear.

Underground water is often subjected to great pressure, and at this time it is able to dissolve much more of any mineral substance than under ordinary conditions. When the pressure is released, the water is unable to hold in solution the quant.i.ty of mineral it contains; therefore, as it flows out through the mouth of the spring, the burden of mineral is laid down. The plants coated with the lime gradually decay, but their forms are preserved.

There are springs the water of which comes out burdened with iron, which is deposited as a yellowish or red mineral on objects over which it flows. Ponds fed by these springs acc.u.mulate deposits of the mineral in the muddy bottoms. Some of the most valuable deposits of iron ore have acc.u.mulated in bogs fed by iron-impregnated spring water. In a similar way lime deposits called marl or chalk are made.

THE SOIL IN FIELDS AND GARDENS

City and country teachers are expected to teach cla.s.ses about the formation and cultivation of soil. It is surprising how much of the needed materials can be brought in by the children, even in the cities.

The beginning is a flowering plant growing in a pot. A window box is a small garden. A garden plot is a miniature farm.

_Materials to collect for study indoors._ A few pieces of different kinds of rock: Granite, sandstone, slate; gravelly fragments of each, and finer sand. Pebbles from brooks and seash.o.r.e. Samples of clays of different colors, and sands. Samples of sandy and clay soils, black pond muck, peat and coal. Rock fossils. A box of moist earth with earthworms in it. _Keep it moist._ A piece of sod, and a red clover plant with the soil clinging to its roots.

_What is soil?_ It is the surface layer of the earth's crust, sometimes too shallow on the rocks to plough, sometimes much deeper. Under deep soil lies the "subsoil," usually hard and rarely ploughed.

_What is soil made of?_ Ground rock materials and decayed remains of animal and plant life. By slow decay the soil becomes rich food for the growing of new plants. Wild land grows up to weeds and finally to forests. The soil in fields and gardens is cultivated to make it fertile. Plants take fertility from the soil. To maintain the same richness, plant food must be put back into the soil. This is done by deep tillage, and by mixing in with the soil manures, green crops, like clover, and commercial fertilizers.

_Plants must be made comfortable, and must be fed._ Few plants are comfortable in sand. It gets hot, it lets water through, and it s.h.i.+fts in wind and is a poor anchor for roots. Clay is so stiff that water cannot easily permeate it; roots have the same trouble to penetrate it and get at the food it is rich in. Air cannot get in.