A Manual of Elementary Geology Part 17

To prevent confusion, however, I shall always speak of these, when they are of the aqueous cla.s.s, as the _primary fossiliferous_ formations, because the word primary has. .h.i.therto been almost inseparably connected with the idea of a non-fossiliferous rock.

If we can prove any plutonic, volcanic, or metamorphic rocks to be older than the secondary formations, such rocks will also be primary, according to this system. Mr. Boue having with great propriety excluded the metamorphic rocks, _as a cla.s.s_, from the primary formations, proposed to call them all "crystalline schists."

As there are secondary fossiliferous strata, so we shall find that there are plutonic, volcanic, and metamorphic rocks of contemporaneous origin, which I shall also term secondary.

In the next chapter it will be shown that the strata above the chalk have been called tertiary. If, therefore, we discover any volcanic, plutonic, or metamorphic rocks, which have originated since the deposition of the chalk, these also will rank as tertiary formations.

It may perhaps be suggested that some metamorphic strata, and some granites, may be anterior in date to the oldest of the primary fossiliferous rocks. This opinion is doubtless true, and will be discussed in future chapters; but I may here observe, that when we arrange the four cla.s.ses of rocks in four parallel columns in one table of chronology, it is by no means a.s.sumed that these columns are all of equal length; one may begin at an earlier period than the rest, and another may come down to a later point of time. In the small part of the globe hitherto examined, it is hardly to be expected that we should have discovered either the oldest or the newest members of each of the four cla.s.ses of rocks. Thus, if there be primary, secondary, and tertiary rocks of the aqueous or fossiliferous cla.s.s, and in like manner primary, secondary, and tertiary hypogene formations, we may not be yet acquainted with the most ancient of the primary fossiliferous beds, or with the newest of the hypogene.

FOOTNOTES:

[91-A] See Principles, vol. i. chap. iv.

CHAPTER IX.

ON THE DIFFERENT AGES OF THE AQUEOUS ROCKS.

On the three princ.i.p.al tests of relative age--superposition, mineral character, and fossils--Change of mineral character and fossils in the same continuous formation--Proofs that distinct species of animals and plants have lived at successive periods--Distinct provinces of indigenous species--Great extent of single provinces--Similar laws prevailed at successive geological periods--Relative importance of mineral and palaeontological characters--Test of age by included fragments--Frequent absence of strata of intervening periods--Princ.i.p.al groups of strata in western Europe.

In the last chapter I spoke generally of the chronological relations of the four great cla.s.ses of rocks, and I shall now treat of the aqueous rocks in particular, or of the successive periods at which the different fossiliferous formations have been deposited.

There are three princ.i.p.al tests by which we determine the age of a given set of strata; first, superposition; secondly, mineral character; and, thirdly, organic remains. Some aid can occasionally be derived from a fourth kind of proof, namely, the fact of one deposit including in it fragments of a pre-existing rock, by which the relative ages of the two may, even in the absence of all other evidence, be determined.

_Superposition._--The first and princ.i.p.al test of the age of one aqueous deposit, as compared to another, is relative position. It has been already stated, that where strata are horizontal, the bed which lies uppermost is the newest of the whole, and that which lies at the bottom the most ancient. So, of a series of sedimentary formations, they are like volumes of history, in which each writer has recorded the annals of his own times, and then laid down the book, with the last written page uppermost, upon the volume in which the events of the era immediately preceding were commemorated. In this manner a lofty pile of chronicles is at length acc.u.mulated; and they are so arranged as to indicate, by their position alone, the order in which the events recorded in them have occurred.

In regard to the crust of the earth, however, there are some regions where, as the student has already been informed, the beds have been disturbed, and sometimes extensively thrown over and turned upside down. (See pp. 58, 59.) But an experienced geologist can rarely be deceived by these exceptional cases. When he finds that the strata are fractured, curved, inclined, or vertical, he knows that the original order of superposition must be doubtful, and he then endeavours to find sections in some neighbouring district where the strata are horizontal, or only slightly inclined. Here the true order of sequence of the entire series of deposits being ascertained, a key is furnished for settling the chronology of those strata where the displacement is extreme.

_Mineral character._--The same rocks may often be observed to retain for miles, or even hundreds of miles, the same mineral peculiarities, if we follow the planes of stratification, or trace the beds, if they be undisturbed, in a horizontal direction. But if we pursue them vertically, or in any direction transverse to the planes of stratification, this uniformity ceases almost immediately. In that case we can scarcely ever penetrate a stratified ma.s.s for a few hundred yards without beholding a succession of extremely dissimilar, calcareous, argillaceous, and siliceous rocks. These phenomena lead to the conclusion, that rivers and currents have dispersed the same sediment over wide areas at one period, but at successive periods have been charged, in the same region, with very different kinds of matter. The first observers were so astonished at the vast s.p.a.ces over which they were able to follow the same h.o.m.ogeneous rocks in a horizontal direction, that they came hastily to the opinion, that the whole globe had been environed by a succession of distinct aqueous formations, disposed round the nucleus of the planet, like the concentric coats of an onion. But although, in fact, some formations may be continuous over districts as large as half of Europe, or even more, yet most of them either terminate wholly within narrower limits, or soon change their lithological character. Sometimes they thin out gradually, as if the supply of sediment had failed in that direction, or they come abruptly to an end, as if we had arrived at the borders of the ancient sea or lake which served as their receptacle. It no less frequently happens that they vary in mineral aspect and composition, as we pursue them horizontally. For example, we trace a limestone for a hundred miles, until it becomes more arenaceous, and finally pa.s.ses into sand, or sandstone. We may then follow this sandstone, already proved by its continuity to be of the same age, throughout another district a hundred miles or more in length.

_Organic remains._--This character must be used as a criterion of the age of a formation, or of the contemporaneous origin of two deposits in distant places, under very much the same restrictions as the test of mineral composition.

First, the same fossils may be traced over wide regions, if we examine strata in the direction of their planes, although by no means for indefinite distances.

Secondly, while the same fossils prevail in a particular set of strata for hundreds of miles in a horizontal direction, we seldom meet with the same remains for many fathoms, and very rarely for several hundred yards, in a vertical line, or a line transverse to the strata. This fact has now been verified in almost all parts of the globe, and has led to a conviction, that at successive periods of the past, the same area of land and water has been inhabited by species of animals and plants even more distinct than those which now people the antipodes, or which now co-exist in the arctic, temperate, and tropical zones. It appears, that from the remotest periods there has been ever a coming in of new organic forms, and an extinction of those which pre-existed on the earth; some species having endured for a longer, others for a shorter, time; while none have ever reappeared after once dying out. The law which has governed the creation and extinction of species seems to be expressed in the verse of the poet,--

Natura il fece, e poi ruppe la stampa. ARIOSTO.

Nature made him, and then broke the die.

And this circ.u.mstance it is, which confers on fossils their highest value as chronological tests, giving to each of them, in the eyes of the geologist, that authority which belongs to contemporary medals in history.

The same cannot be said of each peculiar variety of rock; for some of these, as red marl and red sandstone, for example, may occur at once at the top, bottom, and middle of the entire sedimentary series; exhibiting in each position so perfect an ident.i.ty of mineral aspect as to be undistinguishable. Such exact repet.i.tions, however, of the same mixtures of sediment have not often been produced, at distant periods, in precisely the same parts of the globe; and even where this has happened, we are seldom in any danger of confounding together the monuments of remote eras, when we have studied their imbedded fossils and relative position.

It was remarked that the same species of organic remains cannot be traced horizontally, or in the direction of the planes of stratification for indefinite distances. This might have been expected from a.n.a.logy; for when we inquire into the present distribution of living beings, we find that the habitable surface of the sea and land may be divided into a considerable number of distinct provinces, each peopled by a peculiar a.s.semblage of animals and plants. In the Principles of Geology, I have endeavoured to point out the extent and probable origin of these separate divisions; and it was shown that climate is only one of many causes on which they depend, and that difference of longitude as well as lat.i.tude is generally accompanied by a dissimilarity of indigenous species.

As different seas, therefore, and lakes are inhabited at the same period, by different aquatic animals and plants, and as the lands adjoining these may be peopled by distinct terrestrial species, it follows that distinct fossils will be imbedded in contemporaneous deposits. If it were otherwise--if the same species abounded in every climate, or in every part of the globe where, so far as we can discover, a corresponding temperature and other conditions favourable to their existence are found--the identification of mineral ma.s.ses of the same age, by means of their included organic contents, would be a matter of still greater certainty.

Nevertheless, the extent of some single zoological provinces, especially those of marine animals, is very great; and our geological researches have proved that the same laws prevailed at remote periods; for the fossils are often identical throughout wide s.p.a.ces, and in a great number of detached deposits, in which the mineral nature of the rocks is variable.

The doctrine here laid down will be more readily understood, if we reflect on what is now going on in the Mediterranean. That entire sea may be considered as one zoological province; for, although certain species of testacea and zoophytes may be very local, and each region has probably some species peculiar to it, still a considerable number are common to the whole Mediterranean. If, therefore, at some future period, the bed of this inland sea should be converted into land, the geologist might be enabled, by reference to organic remains, to prove the contemporaneous origin of various mineral ma.s.ses scattered over a s.p.a.ce equal in area to the half of Europe.

Deposits, for example, are well known to be now in progress in this sea in the deltas of the Po, Rhone, Nile, and other rivers, which differ as greatly from each other in the nature of their sediment as does the composition of the mountains which they drain. There are also other quarters of the Mediterranean, as off the coast of Campania, or near the base of Etna, in Sicily, or in the Grecian Archipelago, where another cla.s.s of rocks is now forming; where showers of volcanic ashes occasionally fall into the sea, and streams of lava overflow its bottom; and where, in the intervals between volcanic eruptions, beds of sand and clay are frequently derived from the waste of cliffs, or the turbid waters of rivers.

Limestones, moreover, such as the Italian travertins, are here and there precipitated from the waters of mineral springs, some of which rise up from the bottom of the sea. In all these detached formations, so diversified in their lithological characters, the remains of the same sh.e.l.ls, corals, crustacea, and fish are becoming inclosed; or, at least, a sufficient number must be common to the different localities to enable the zoologist to refer them all to one contemporaneous a.s.semblage of species.

There are, however, certain combinations of geographical circ.u.mstances which cause distinct provinces of animals and plants to be separated from each other by very narrow limits; and hence it must happen, that strata will be sometimes formed in contiguous regions, differing widely both in mineral contents and organic remains. Thus, for example, the testacea, zoophytes, and fish of the Red Sea are, as a group, extremely distinct from those inhabiting the adjoining parts of the Mediterranean, although the two seas are separated only by the narrow isthmus of Suez.

Of the bivalve sh.e.l.ls, according to Philippi, not more than a fifth are common to the Red Sea and the sea around Sicily, while the proportion of univalves (or Gasteropoda) is still smaller, not exceeding eighteen in a hundred. Calcareous formations have acc.u.mulated on a great scale in the Red Sea in modern times, and fossil sh.e.l.ls of existing species are well preserved therein; and we know that at the mouth of the Nile large deposits of mud are ama.s.sed, including the remains of Mediterranean species. It follows, therefore, that if at some future period the bed of the Red Sea should be laid dry, the geologist might experience great difficulties in endeavouring to ascertain the relative age of these formations, which, although dissimilar both in organic and mineral characters, were of synchronous origin.

But, on the other hand, we must not forget that the north-western sh.o.r.es of the Arabian Gulf, the plains of Egypt, and the isthmus of Suez, are all parts of one province of _terrestrial_ species. Small streams, therefore, occasional land-floods, and those winds which drift clouds of sand along the deserts, might carry down into the Red Sea the same sh.e.l.ls of fluviatile and land testacea which the Nile is sweeping into its delta, together with some remains of terrestrial plants and the bones of quadrupeds, whereby the groups of strata, before alluded to, might, notwithstanding the discrepancy of their mineral composition and _marine_ organic fossils, be shown to have belonged to the same epoch.

Yet while rivers may thus carry down the same fluviatile and terrestrial spoils into two or more seas inhabited by different marine species, it will much more frequently happen, that the co-existence of terrestrial species of distinct zoological and botanical provinces will be proved by the ident.i.ty of the marine beings which inhabited the intervening s.p.a.ce.

Thus, for example, the land quadrupeds and sh.e.l.ls of the south of Europe, north of Africa, and north-west of Asia, are different, yet their remains are all washed down by rivers flowing from these three countries into the Mediterranean.

In some parts of the globe, at the present period, the line of demarcation between distinct provinces of animals and plants is not very strongly marked, especially where the change is determined by temperature, as in seas extending from the temperate to the tropical zone, or from the temperate to the arctic regions. Here a gradual pa.s.sage takes place from one set of species to another. In like manner the geologist, in studying particular formations of remote periods, has sometimes been able to trace the gradation from one ancient province to another, by observing carefully the fossils of all the intermediate places. His success in thus acquiring a knowledge of the zoological or botanical geography of very distant eras has been mainly owing to this circ.u.mstance, that the mineral character has no tendency to be affected by climate. A large river may convey yellow or red mud into some part of the ocean, where it may be dispersed by a current over an area several hundred leagues in length, so as to pa.s.s from the tropics into the temperate zone. If the bottom of the sea be afterwards upraised, the organic remains imbedded in such yellow or red strata may indicate the different animals or plants which once inhabited at the same time the temperate and equatorial regions.

It may be true, as a general rule, that groups of the same species of animals and plants may extend over wider areas than deposits of h.o.m.ogeneous composition; and if so, palaeontological characters will be of more importance in geological cla.s.sification than mineral composition; but it is idle to discuss the relative value of these tests, as the aid of both is indispensable, and it fortunately happens, that where the one criterion fails, we can often avail ourselves of the other.

_Test by included fragments of older rocks._--It was stated, that independent proof may sometimes be obtained of the relative date of two formations, by fragments of an older rock being included in a newer one.

This evidence may sometimes be of great use, where a geologist is at a loss to determine the relative age of two formations from want of clear sections exhibiting their true order of position, or because the strata of each group are vertical. In such cases we sometimes discover that the more modern rock has been in part derived from the degradation of the older. Thus, for example, we may find in one part of a country chalk with flints; and, in another, a distinct formation, consisting of alternations of clay, sand, and pebbles. If some of these pebbles consist of similar flint and fossil sh.e.l.ls, sponges, and foraminiferae, of the same species as those in the chalk, we may confidently infer that the chalk is the oldest of the two formations.

_Chronological groups._--The number of groups into which the fossiliferous strata may be separated are more or less numerous, according to the views of cla.s.sification which different geologists entertain; but when we have adopted a certain system of arrangement, we immediately find that a few only of the entire series of groups occur one upon the other in any single section or district.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 104. Block section.]

The thinning out of individual strata was before described (p. 16.). But let the annexed diagram represent seven fossiliferous groups, instead of as many strata. It will then be seen that in the middle all the superimposed formations are present; but in consequence of some of them thinning out, No. 2. and No. 5. are absent at one extremity of the section, and No. 4. at the other.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 105. Section South of Bristol. A. C. Ramsay.

Length of section 4 miles. _a_, _b_. Level of the sea.

1. Inferior oolite.

2. Lias.

3. New red sandstone.

4. Magnesian conglomerate.

5. Coal measure.

6. Carboniferous limestone.

7. Old red sandstone.]

In the annexed diagram, fig. 105., a real section of the geological formations in the neighbourhood of Bristol and the Mendip Hills, is presented to the reader as laid down on a true scale by Professor Ramsay, where the newer groups 1, 2, 3, 4. rest unconformably on the formations 5 and 6. Here at the southern end of the line of section we meet with the beds No. 3. (the New Red Sandstone) resting immediately on No. 6., while farther north, as at Dundry Hill, we behold six groups superimposed one upon the other, comprising all the strata from the inferior oolite to the coal and carboniferous limestone. The limited extension of the groups 1 and 2. is owing to denudation, as these formations end abruptly, and have left outlying patches to attest the fact of their having originally covered a much wider area.

In many instances, however, the entire absence of one or more formations of intervening periods between two groups, such as 3. and 5. in the same section, arises, not from the destruction of what once existed, but because no strata of an intermediate age were ever deposited on the inferior rock.

They were not formed at that place, either because the region was dry land during the interval, or because it was part of a sea or lake to which no sediment was carried.

In order, therefore, to establish a chronological succession of fossiliferous groups, a geologist must begin with a single section, in which several sets of strata lie one upon the other. He must then trace these formations, by attention to their mineral character and fossils, continuously, as far as possible, from the starting point. As often as he meets with new groups, he must ascertain by superposition their age relatively to those first examined, and thus learn how to intercalate them in a tabular arrangement of the whole.

By this means the German, French, and English geologists have determined the succession of strata throughout a great part of Europe, and have adopted pretty generally the following groups, almost all of which have their representatives in the British Islands.