A Manual of Elementary Geology Part 2

In speaking of the chalk of Faxoe in Denmark (p. 210.) or the highest member of the Cretaceous series, I have remarked that it is characterized by univalve Mollusca, both spiral and patelliform, which are wanting or rare in the white chalk of Europe. This last statement requires, I find, some modification. It holds true in regard to certain forms, such as Cypraea and Oliva, found at Faxoe; but M. A. d'Orbigny enumerates 24 species of Gasteropoda from the white chalk (Terrain Senonien) of France alone. The same author describes 134 French species of Gasteropoda from the chloritic chalk marl and upper greensand (Turonien), 77 from the gault, and 90 from the lower greensand (Neocomien), in all 325 species of Gasteropoda, from the cretaceous group below the Maestricht beds. Among these he refers 1 to the genus Mitra, 17 to Fusus, 17 to Trochus, 4 to Emarginula, and 36 to Cerithium. Notwithstanding, therefore, the peculiarity of the chambered univalves of various genera, so abundant in the chalk, the Mollusca of the period approximate in character to the tertiary and recent Fauna far more than was formerly supposed.

DICOTYLEDONOUS LEAVES IN LOWER CRETACEOUS STRATA.

M. Adolphe Brongniart when founding his cla.s.sification of the fossiliferous strata in reference to their imbedded fossil plants, has placed the cretaceous group in the same division with the tertiary, that is to say, in his "Age of Angiosperms."[xvi-A] This arrangement is based on the fact, that the cretaceous plants display a transition character from the vegetation of the secondary to that of the tertiary periods. Coniferae and Cycadeae still flourished as in the preceding oolitic and tria.s.sic epochs; but with these fossils, some well-marked leaves of dicotyledonous trees referred to several species of the genus Credneria, had been found in Germany in the Quadersandstein and Planer-kalk. Still more recently, Dr.

Debey of Aix-la-Chapelle has met with a great variety of other leaves of dicotyledonous plants in the cretaceous flora[xvi-B], of which he enumerates no less than 26 species, some of the leaves being from four to six inches in length, and in a beautiful state of preservation. In the absence of the organs of fructification and of fossil fruits, the number of species may be exaggerated; but we may nevertheless affirm, reasoning from our present data, that in the lower chalk of Aix-la-Chapelle, Dicotyledonous Angiosperms flourished nearly in equal proportions with Gymnosperms; a fact of great significance, as some geologists had wished to connect the rarity of dicotyledonous trees with a peculiarity in the state of the atmosphere in the earlier ages of the planet, imagining that a denser air and noxious gases, especially carbonic acid in excess, were adverse to the prevalence, not only of the quick-breathing cla.s.ses of animals, (mammalia and birds,) but to a flora like that now existing, while it favoured the predominance of reptile life, and a cryptogamic and gymnospermous flora. The co-existence, therefore, of dicotyledonous angiosperms in abundance with Cycads and Coniferae, and with a rich reptilian fauna comprising the Iguanodon, Ichthyosaurus, Pliosaurus, and Pterodactyl, in the lower cretaceous series tends, like the oolitic mammalia of Stonesfield and Stuttgart, and the tria.s.sic birds of Connecticut, to dispel the idea of a meteorological state of things in the secondary periods widely distinct from that now prevailing.

_General remarks._--In the preliminary chapters of "The Principles of Geology," in the first and subsequent editions, I have considered the question, how far the changes of the earth's crust in past times confirm or invalidate the popular hypothesis of a gradual improvement in the habitable condition of the planet, accompanied by a contemporaneous development and progression in organic life. It had long been a favourite theory, that in the earlier ages to which we can carry back our geological researches, the earth was shaken by more frequent and terrible earthquakes than now, and that there was no certainty nor stability in the order of the natural world. A few sea-weeds and zoophytes, or plants and animals of the simplest organization, were alone capable of existing in a state of things so unfixed and unstable. But in proportion as the conditions of existence improved, and great convulsions and catastrophes became rarer and more partial, flowering plants were added to the cryptogamic cla.s.s, and by the introduction of more and more perfect species, a varied and complex flora was at last established. In like manner, in the animal kingdom, the zoophyte, the brachiopod, the cephalopod, the fish, the reptile, the bird, and the warm-blooded quadruped made their entrance into the earth, one after the other, until finally, after the close of the tertiary period, came the quadrumanous mammalia, most nearly resembling man in outward form and internal structure, and followed soon afterwards, if not accompanied at first, by the human race itself.

The objections which, in 1830, I urged against this doctrine[xvii-A], in so far as relates to the pa.s.sage of the earth from a chaotic to a more settled condition, have since been embraced by a large and steadily increasing school of geologists; and in reference to the animate world, it will be seen, on comparing the present state of our knowledge with that which we possessed twenty years ago, how fully I was justified in declaring the insufficiency of the data on which such bold generalizations, respecting progressive development, were based. Speaking of the absence, from the tertiary formations, of fossil Quadrumana, I observed, in 1830, that "we had no right to expect to have detected any remains of tribes which live in trees, until we knew more of those quadrupeds which frequent marshes, rivers, and the borders of lakes, such being usually first met with in a fossil state."[xvii-B] I also added, "if we are led to infer, from the presence of crocodiles and turtles in the London clay, and from the cocoa-nuts and spices found in the isle of Sheppey, that at the period when our older tertiary strata were formed, the climate was hot enough for the Quadrumana, we nevertheless could not hope to discover any of their skeletons, until we had made considerable progress in ascertaining what were the contemporary Pachydermata; and not one of these has been discovered as yet in any strata of this epoch in England."

Nine years afterwards, when these fossil Pachyderms had been found in the London clay, and in the sandy strata at its base, the remains of a monkey, of the genus Macacus, were detected near Woodbridge, in Suffolk; and other Quadrumana had been met with, a short time previously, in different stages of the tertiary series, in India, France, and Brazil.

When we consider the small area of the earth's surface hitherto examined geologically, and our scanty acquaintance with the fossil Vertebrata, even of the environs of great European capitals, it is truly surprising that any naturalist should be rash enough to a.s.sume that the Lower Eocene deposits mark the era of the first creation of Quadrumana. It is, however, still more unphilosophical to infer from a single extinct species of this order, obtained in a lat.i.tude far from the tropics, that the Eocene Quadrumana had not attained as high a grade of organization as those of our own times, when the naturalist is acquainted with all, or nearly all, the species of monkeys, apes and orangs which are contemporary with man.

To return to the year 1830, Mammalia had not then been traced to rocks of higher antiquity than the Stonesfield Oolite, whereas we have just seen that memorials of this cla.s.s have at length made their appearance in the Trias of Germany. In 1830 birds had been discovered no lower in the series than the Paris gypsum, or Middle Eocene. Their bones have now been found both in England and the Swiss Alps in the Lower Eocene, and their existence has been established by foot-prints in the tria.s.sic epoch in North America (p. 297.). Reptiles in 1830 had not been detected in rocks older than the Magnesian limestone, or Permian formation; whereas the skeletons of four species have since been brought to light (see p. 336.) in the coal-measures, and one in the Old Red sandstone, of Europe, while the footprints of three or four more have been observed in carboniferous rocks of North America, not to mention the chelonian trail above described, from the most ancient of the fossiliferous rocks of Canada, the "Potsdam Sandstone," which lies at the base of the Lower Silurian system.

(See above, p. vii.)

Lastly, the remains of fish, which in 1830 were scarcely recognized in deposits older than the coal, have now been found plentifully in the Devonian, and sparingly in the Silurian, strata; though not in any formation of such high antiquity as the Chelonian of Montreal.

Previously to the discovery last mentioned, it was by no means uncommon for paleontologists to speak with confidence of fish as having been created before reptiles. It was deemed reasonable to suppose that the introduction of a particular cla.s.s or order of beings into the planet coincided, in date, with the age of the oldest rock to which the remains of that cla.s.s or order happened then to have been traced back. To be consistent with themselves, the same naturalists ought now to take for granted that reptiles were called into existence before fish. This they will not do, because such a conclusion would militate against their favourite hypothesis of an ascending scale, according to which Nature "evolved the organic world," rendering it more and more perfect in the lapse of ages.

In our efforts to arrive at sound theoretical views on such a question, it would seem most natural to turn to the marine invertebrate animals as to a cla.s.s affording the most complete series of monuments that have come down to us, and where we can find corresponding terms of comparison, in strata of every age. If, in this more complete series of her archives, Nature had really exhibited a more simple grade of organization in fossils of the remotest antiquity, we might have suspected that there was some foundation of facts in the theory of successive development. But what do we find? In the Lower Silurian there is a full representation of the Radiata, Mollusca, and Articulata proper to the sea. The marine Fauna, indeed, in those three cla.s.ses, is so rich as almost to imply a more perfect development than that which now peoples the ocean. Thus, in the great division of the Radiata, we find asteroid and helianthoid zoophytes, besides crinoid and cystidean echinoderms. In the Mollusca of the same most ancient epoch M. Barrande enumerates, in Bohemia alone, the astonis.h.i.+ng number of 253 species of Cephalopoda. In the Articulata we have the crustaceans, represented by more than 200 species of Trilobites, not to mention other genera.

It is only then, in reference to the Vertebrata, that the argument of degeneracy in proportion as we trace fossils back to older formations can be maintained; and the dogma rests mainly for its support on negative evidence, whether deduced from the entire absence of the fossil representatives of certain cla.s.ses in particular rocks, or the low grade of the first few species of a cla.s.s which chance has thrown in our way.

The scarcity of all memorials of birds in strata below the Eocene, has been a subject of surprise to some geologists. The bones formerly referred to birds in the Wealden and Chalk, are now admitted to have belonged to flying reptiles, of various sizes, one of them from the Kentish chalk so large as to have measured 16 feet 6 inches from tip to tip of its outstretched wings. Whether some elongated bones of the Stonesfield Oolite should be referred to birds, which they seem greatly to resemble in microscopic structure or to Pterodactyles, is a point now under investigation. If it should be proved that no osseous remains of the cla.s.s Aves have hitherto been derived from any secondary or primary formation, we must not too hastily conclude that birds were even scarce in these periods. The rarity of such fossils in the Eocene marine strata is very striking. In 1846, Professor Owen, in his "History of the Fossil Mammalia and Birds of Great Britain," was unable to obtain more than four or five fragments of bones and skulls of birds from the London Clay, by the aid of which four species were recognized. Even so recently, therefore, as 1846, as much was known of the Mammalia of the Stonesfield Oolite, as of the ornithic Fauna of our English Eocene deposits.

To reason correctly on the value of negative facts in this branch of Paleontology, we must first have ascertained how far the relics of birds are now becoming preserved in new strata, whether marine, fluviatile, or lacustrine. I have explained, in the "Principles of Geology," that the imbedding of the bones of living birds in deposits now in progress in inland lakes appears to be extremely rare. In the sh.e.l.l-marl of Scotland, which is made up bodily of the sh.e.l.ls of the genera Limneus, Planorbis, Succinea, and Valvata, and in which the skeletons of deer and oxen abound, we find no bones of birds. Yet we know that, before the lakes were drained which yield this marl used in agriculture, the surface of the water and the bordering swamps were covered with wild ducks, herons, and other fowl. They left no memorials behind them, because, if they perished on the land, their bodies decomposed or became the prey of carnivorous animals; if on the water, they were buoyant and floated till they were devoured by predaceous fish or birds. The same causes of obliteration have no power to efface the foot-prints which the same creatures may leave, under favourable circ.u.mstances, imprinted on an ancient mud-bank or sh.o.r.e, on which new strata may be from time to time thrown down. In the red mud of recent origin spread over wide areas by the high tides of the bay of Fundy, innumerable foot-tracks of recent birds (Tringa minuta) are preserved in successive layers, and hardened by the sun. Yet none of the bones of these birds, though diligently searched for, have yet been discovered in digging trenches through the red mud. It is true that, in a few spots, the bones of birds have been met with plentifully in the older tertiary strata, but always in rocks of freshwater origin, such as the Paris gypsum or the lacustrine limestone of the Limagne d'Auvergne. In strata of the same age, in Belgium and other European countries, or in the United States, where no less careful search has been made, few, if any, fossil birds have come to light.

We ought, therefore, most clearly to perceive that it is no part of the plan of Nature to hand down to after times a complete or systematic record of the former history of the animate world. The preservation of the relics, even of aquatic tribes of animals, is an exception to the general rule, although time may so multiply exceptional cases that they may seem to const.i.tute the rule; and may thus impose upon the imagination, leading us to infer the non-existence of creatures of which no monuments are extant.

Hitherto our acquaintance with the birds, and even the Mammalia, of the Eocene period has depended, almost everywhere, on single specimens, or on a few individuals found in one spot. It has therefore depended on what we commonly call chance; and we must not wonder if the casual discovery of a tertiary, secondary, or primary rock, rich in fossil impressions of the foot-prints of birds or quadrupeds, should modify or suddenly overthrow all theories based on negative facts.

The chief reason why we meet more readily with the remains of every cla.s.s in tertiary than in secondary strata, is simply that the older rocks are more and more exclusively marine in proportion as we depart farther and farther from periods during which the existing continents were built up.

The secondary and primary formations are, for the most part, marine,--not because the ocean was more universal in past times, but because the epochs which preceded the Eocene were so distant from our own, that entire continents have been since submerged.

I have alluded at p. 299. to Mr. Darwin's account of the South American Ostriches, seen on the coast of Buenos Ayres, walking at low water over extensive mud-banks, which are then dry, for the sake of feeding on small fish. Perhaps no bird of such perfect organization as the eagle or vulture may ever accompany these ostriches. Certainly, we cannot expect the condor of the Andes to leave its trail on such a sh.o.r.e; and no traveller, after searching for footprints along the whole eastern coast of South America, would venture to speculate, from the results of such an inquiry, on the extent, variety, or development of the feathered Fauna of the interior of that continent.

The absence of Cetacea from rocks older than the Eocene has been frequently adduced as lending countenance to the theory of the late appearance of the highest cla.s.s of Vertebrata on the earth. That we have hitherto failed to detect them in the Oolite or Trias, does not imply, as we have now seen, that Mammalia were not then created. Even in the Eocene strata of Europe, the discovery of Cetaceans has never kept pace with that of land quadrupeds. The only instance cited in Great Britain is a species of Monodon, from the London clay, of doubtful authenticity as to its geological position. On the other hand, the gigantic Zeuglodon of North America (see p. 207.), occurs abundantly in the Middle Eocene strata of Georgia and Alabama, from which as yet no bones of land-quadrupeds have been obtained.

Professor Sedgwick states in a recent work[xxi-A], that he possesses in the Woodwardian Museum, a ma.s.s of anchylosed cervical vertebrae of a whale which he found near Ely, and which he believes to have been washed out of the Kimmeridge clay, a member of the Upper Oolite; but its true geological site is not well determined. It differs, says Professor Owen, from any other known fossil or recent whale.

In the present imperfect state then of our information, we can scarcely say more than that the Cetacea may have been scarce, in the secondary and primary periods. It is quite conceivable that when aquatic saurians, some of them carnivorous, like the Ichthyosaurus, were swarming in the sea, and when there were large herbivorous reptiles, like the Iguanodon, on the land, such reptiles may, to a certain extent, have superseded the Cetacea, and discharged their functions in the animal economy.

The views which I proposed originally in the Principles of Geology in opposition to the theory of progressive development may be thus briefly explained. From the earliest period at which plants and animals can be proved to have existed, there has been a continual change going on in the position of land and sea, accompanied by great fluctuations of climate. To these ever-varying geographical and climatal conditions the state of the animate world has been unceasingly adapted. No satisfactory proof has yet been discovered of the gradual pa.s.sage of the earth from a chaotic to a more habitable state, nor of a law of progressive development governing the extinction and renovation of species, and causing the Fauna and Flora to pa.s.s from an embryonic to a more perfect condition, from a simple to a more complex organization.

The principle of adaptation above alluded to, appears to have been a.n.a.logous to that which now peoples the arctic, temperate, and tropical regions contemporaneously with distinct a.s.semblages of species and genera, or which independently of mere temperature gives rise to a predominance of the marsupial tribe of quadrupeds in Australia, and of the placental tribe in Asia and Europe, or to a profusion of reptiles without mammalia in the Galapagos Archipelago, and of mammalia without reptiles in Greenland.[xxii-A]

This theory implies, almost necessarily, a very unequal representation at successive periods of the princ.i.p.al cla.s.ses and orders of plants and animals, if not in the whole globe, at least throughout very wide areas.

Thus, for example, the proportional number of genera, species, and individuals in the vertebrate cla.s.s may differ, in two different and distinct epochs, to an extent unparalleled by any two contemporaneous Faunas, because in the course of millions of ages, the contrast of climate and geographical conditions may exceed the difference now observable in polar and equatorial lat.i.tudes.

I shall conclude by observing, that if the doctrine of successive development had been paleontologically true, as the new discoveries above enumerated show that it is not; if the sponge, the cephalopod, the fish, the reptile, the bird, and the mammifer had followed each other in regular chronological order--the creation of each cla.s.s being separated from the other by vast intervals of time; and if it were admitted that Man was created last of all, still we should by no means be able to recognize, in his entrance upon the earth, the last term of one and the same series of progressive developments. For the superiority of Man, as compared to the irrational mammalia, is one of kind, rather than of degree, consisting in a rational and moral nature, with an intellect capable of indefinite progression, and not in the perfection of his physical organization, or those instincts in which he resembles the brutes. He may be considered as a link in the same unbroken chain of being, if we regard him simply as a new species--a member of the animal kingdom--subject, like other species, to certain fixed and invariable laws, and adapted like them to the state of the animate and inanimate world prevailing at the time of his creation.

Physically considered, he may form part of an indefinite series of terrestrial changes past, present, and to come; but morally and intellectually he may belong to another system of things--of things immaterial--a system which is not permitted to interrupt or disturb the course of the material world, or the laws which govern its changes.[xxii-B]

FOOTNOTES:

[vii-A] Travels in North America by the Author, vol. ii. chap. 22.

[vii-B] Ibid. 1842.

[viii-A] Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1851, vol. vii. p. 250.

[ix-A] The generally received determination of the age of this rock is probably correct; but as there are no overlying coal-measures and no well-known Devonian fossils in the whitish stone of Elgin, and as I have not personally explored the geology of that district, I cannot speak as confidently as in regard to the age of the Montreal Chelonian.

[xii-A] H. D. Rogers, Proceedings of Amer. a.s.soc. of Science, Albany, 1851.

[xii-B] See Memoir by the Author, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol.

vii. p. 240.

[xiii-A] Wurtembergisch. Naturwissen. Jahreshefte, 3 Jahr. Stuttgart, 1847.

[xiii-B] Nov. Act. Acad. Caesar. Leopold. Nat. Cur. 1850, p. 902. For figures, see ibid. plate xxi. figs. 14, 15, 16, 17.

[xiv-A] See Manual, p. 268.

[xv-A] Manual, p. 289.

[xv-B] Ibid. p. 268.

[xvi-A] For Terminology, see Note, p. 223.

[xvi-B] Quart. Journ. vol. vii. Memoirs, p. 111.

[xvii-A] Principles, 1st ed. chaps. v. and ix.

[xvii-B] Ibid. p. 153.

[xxi-A] Preface to 5th ed. of Studies of University of Cambridge.

[xxii-A] Principles, 4th ed. 1835, vol. i. p. 231, and vol. i. chap. 9.

subsequent ed.

[xxii-B] In my Anniversary Address, for 1851, to the Geological Society, the reader will find a full discussion of the facts and arguments which bear on the theory of progressive development.--Quart. Journ. Geol.

Soc., vol. vii.