Man, Past and Present Part 32

[575] "The Asiatic Background," _Cambridge Medieval History_, Vol. I.

1911.

[576] _Memoires de la Delegation en Perse; Recherches archeologiques_ (from 1899).

[577] _Sand-buried Cities of Khotan_, 1903.

[578] "Ueber Alte Grabstatten in Sibirien und der Mongolei," in _Mitt.

d. Anthrop. Ges._, Vienna, 1895, XXV. 9.

[579] Th. Volkov, in _L'Anthropologie_, 1896, p. 82.

[580] Too much stress must not, however, be laid upon the theory of gradual desiccation as a factor in depopulation. There are many causes such as earthquake, water-spouts, s.h.i.+fting of currents, neglect of irrigation and, above all, the work of enemies to account for the sand-buried ruins of populous cities in Central Asia. See T. Peisker, "The Asiatic Background," _Cambridge Medieval History_, Vol. I. 1911, p.

326.

[581] _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ 1895, p. 318 sq.

[582] Cf. _Archaeologia Cambrensis_, 6th Ser. XIV. Part 1, 1914, p. 131, and _Zeitschr. f. Ethnol._ 1910, p. 601.

[583] "Zur Prahistorik j.a.pans," _Globus_, 1896, No. 10.

[584] The best account of the archaeology of j.a.pan will be found in _Prehistoric j.a.pan_, by N. G. Munro, 1912.

[585] _Die Bronzezeit Finnlands_, Helsingfors, 1897.

[586] "Akkadian," first applied by Rawlinson to the non-Semitic texts found at Nineveh, is still often used by English writers in place of the more correct _Sumerian_, the Akkadians being now shown to be Semitic immigrants into Northern Babylonia (p. 264).

[587] Cf. L. W. King, _History of Sumer and Akkad_, 1910, pp. 5, 6.

[588] _Ueber die Summerische Sprache_, Paper read at the Russian Archaeological Congress, Riga, 1896.

[589] "Sumer and Sumerian," _Ency. Brit._ 1911, with references.

[590] _Geschichte des Altertums_, I. 2, 2nd ed. 1909, p. 404.

[591] E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, I. 2, 2nd ed. 1909, p. 406.

L. W. King (_History of Sumer and Akkad_, 1910) discusses Meyer's arguments and points out that the earliest Sumerian G.o.ds appear to be free from Semitic influence (p. 51). He is inclined, however, to regard the Sumerians as displacing an earlier Semitic people (Hutchinson's _History of the Nations_, 1914, pp. 221 and 229).

[592] Ellsworth Huntington, _The Pulse of Asia_, 1910, p. 382.

[593] L. W. King, _History of Sumer and Akkad_, 1910, p. 357.

[594] E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, I. 2, 2nd ed. 1909, p. 463.

[595] L. W. King, _History of Sumer and Akkad_, 1910, p. 61, and the article, "Chronology. Babylonia and a.s.syria," _Ency. Brit._ 1911. Cf.

also E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, I. 2, 2nd ed. 1909, ---- 329 and 383.

[596] The cylinder-seals and tablets of Fara, excavated by Koldewey, Andrae and Noeldeke in 1902-3 may go back to 3400 B.C. Cf. L. W. King, _loc. cit._ p. 65.

[597] C. H. W. Johns, _Ancient Babylonia_, 1913, regards Sharrukin as "Sargon of Akkad," p. 39.

[598] L. W. King, _History of Sumer and Akkad_, 1910, pp. 234, 343, where the seal is referred to a period not much earlier than the First Dynasty of Babylon.

[599] H. V. Hilprecht, _The Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania_, Series D, Vol. v. 1. 1910.

[600] See _The Times_, June 24, 1914.

[601] "Babylonia and Elam Four Thousand Years Ago," in _Knowledge_, May 1, 1896, p. 116 sq. and elsewhere.

[602] The term "Elam" is said to have the same meaning as "Akkad"

(_i.e._ Highland) in contradistinction to "Sumer" (Lowland). It should be noted that neither Akkad nor Sumer occurs in the oldest texts, where Akkad is called _Kish_ from the name of its capital, and Sumer _Kiengi_ (_Kengi_), probably a general name meaning "the land." Kish has been identified with the Kush of Gen. x., one of the best abused words in Palethnology. For this identification, however, there is some ground, seeing that Kush is mentioned in the closest connection with "Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of s.h.i.+nar" (Mesopotamia) _v._ 10.

[603] J. de Morgan, _Memoires de la Delegation en Perse_, 1899-1906.

[604] S. Laing, _Human Origins_, p. 74.

[605] And it has remained so ever since, the present Lur and Bakhtiari inhabitants of Susiana speaking, not the standard Neo-Persian, but dialects of the ruder Kurdish branch of the Iranian family, as if they had been Aryanised from Media, the capital of which was Ekbatana. We have here, perhaps, a clue to the origin of the Medes themselves, who were certainly the above-mentioned Mandas of Nabonidus, their capital being also the same Ekbatana. Now Sayce (_Academy_, Sept. 7, 1895, p.

189) identified the Kimmerians with these Manda nomads, whose king Tukdamme (Tugdamme) was the Lygdanis of Strabo (I. 3, 16), who led a horde of Kimmerians into Lydia and captured Sardis. We know from Esarhaddon's inscriptions that by the a.s.syrians these Kimmerians were called Manda, their prince Teupsa (Teispe) being described as "of the people of the Manda." An oracle given to Esar-haddon begins: "The Kimmerian in the mountains has set fire in the land of Ellip," _i.e._ the land where Ekbatana was afterwards founded, which is now shown to have already been occupied by the Kimmerian or Manda hordes. It follows that Kimmerians, Mandas, Medes with their modern Kurd and Bakhtiari representatives, were all one people, who were almost certainly of Aryan speech, if not actually of proto-Aryan stock. "The Kurds are the descendants of Aryan invaders and have maintained their type and their language for more than 3300 years," F. v. Luschan, "The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLI. 1911, p.

230. For a cla.s.sification of Kurds see Mark Sykes, "The Kurdish Tribes of the Ottoman Empire," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ x.x.xVIII. 1908, p.

451. Cf. also D. G. Hogarth, _The Nearer East_, 1902.

[606] C. H. W. Johns, _Ancient Babylonia_, 1913, p. 27.

[607] Cf. H. Zimmern, article "Babylonians and a.s.syrians," _Ency.

Religion and Ethics_, 1909.

[608] G. Maspero, _Dawn of Civilisation_, p. 733.

[609] _Ibid._ p. 71.

[610] _Ibid._ p. 752.

[611] _Vorgeschichte_, etc., Book II. _pa.s.sim_.

[612] _Geschichte Babyloniens u. a.s.syriens._

[613] G. Maspero, _The Struggle of the Nations, Egypt, Syria and a.s.syria_, 1910.

[614] It is noteworthy that _Dalai_, "Ocean," is itself a Mongol word, though _Lama_, "Priest," is Tibetan. The explanation is that in the thirteenth century a local incarnation of Buddha was raised by the then dominant Mongols to the first rank, and this t.i.tle of _Dalai Lama_, the "Ocean Priest," _i.e._ the Priest of fathomless wisdom, was bestowed on one of his successors in the sixteenth century, and still retained by the High Pontiff at Lhasa.

[615] _Aboriginal Siberia_, 1914, p. 13.

[616] _Loc. cit._ pp. 18-21.

[617] Either from the Chinese _Tunghu_, "Eastern Barbarians," or from the Turki _Tinghiz_, as in Isaac Ma.s.sa: _per interpretes se Tingoesi vocari dixerunt_ (_Descriptio_, etc., Amsterdam, 1612). But there is no collective national name, and at present they call themselves _Don-ki_, _Boia_, _Boie_, etc., terms all meaning "Men," "People." In the Chinese records they are referred to under the name of _I-lu_ so early as 263 A.D., when they dwelt in the forest region between the Upper Temen and Yalu rivers on the one hand and the Pacific Ocean on the other, and paid tribute in kind--sable furs, bows, and stone arrow-heads. Arrows and stone arrow-heads were also the tribute paid to the emperors of the Shang dynasty (1766-1154 B.C.) by the _Su-shen_, who dwelt north of the Liao-tung peninsula, so that we have here official proof of a Stone Age of long duration in Manchuria. Later, the Chinese chronicles mention the _U-ki_ or _Mo-ho_, a warlike people of the Sungari valley and surrounding uplands, who in the 7th century founded the kingdom of _Pu-ha[=i]_, overthrown in 925 by the Khitans of the Lower Sungari below its Noni confluence, who were themselves Tunguses and according to some Chinese authorities the direct ancestors of the Manchus.

[618] "C'est la tendance de la tete a se developper en hauteur, juste en sens inverse de l'aplatiss.e.m.e.nt vertical du Mongol. La tete du Turc est donc a la fois plus haute et plus courte" (_L'Anthropologie_, VI. 3, p.

8).

[619] Reclus, VI.; Eng. ed. p. 360.