The Student's Elements of Geology Part 73

CHLORITE SCHISTis a green slaty rock, in which chlorite is abundant in foliated plates, usually blended with minute grains of quartz, or sometimes with feldspar or mica; often a.s.sociated with, and graduating into, gneiss and clay- slate.

QUARTZITE, or QUARTZ ROCK, is an aggregate of grains of quartz which are either in minute crystals, or in many cases slightly rounded, occurring in regular strata, a.s.sociated with gneiss or other metamorphic rocks. Compact quartz, like that so frequently found in veins, is also found together with granular quartzite. Both of these alternate with gneiss or mica-schist, or pa.s.s into those rocks by the addition of mica, or of feldspar and mica.

CRYSTALLINE, OR METAMORPHIC LIMESTONE.

This hypogene rock, called by the earlier geologists PRIMARY LIMESTONE, is sometimes a white crystalline granular marble, which when in thick beds can be used in sculpture; but more frequently it occurs in thin beds, forming a foliated schist much resembling in colour and arrangement certain varieties of gneiss and mica-schist. When it alternates with these rocks, it often contains some crystals of mica, and occasionally quartz, feldspar, hornblende, talc, chlorite, garnet, and other minerals. It enters sparingly into the structure of the hypogene districts of Norway, Sweden, and Scotland, but is largely developed in the Alps.

ORIGIN OF THE METAMORPHIC STRATA.

Having said thus much of the mineral composition of the metamorphic rocks, I may combine what remains to be said of their structure and history with an account of the opinions entertained of their probable origin. At the same time, it may be well to forewarn the reader that we are here entering upon ground of controversy, and soon reach the limits where positive induction ends, and beyond which we can only indulge in speculations. It was once a favourite doctrine, and is still maintained by many, that these rocks owe their crystalline texture, their want of all signs of a mechanical origin, or of fossil contents, to a peculiar and nascent condition of the planet at the period of their formation.

The arguments in refutation of this hypothesis will be more fully considered when I show, in Chapter 35, to how many different ages the metamorphic formations are referable, and how gneiss, mica-schist, clay-slate, and hypogene limestone (that of Carrara, for example) have been formed, not only since the first introduction of organic beings into this planet, but even long after many distinct races of plants and animals had flourished and pa.s.sed away in succession.

The doctrine respecting the crystalline strata implied in the name metamorphic may properly be treated of in this place; and we must first inquire whether these rocks are really ent.i.tled to be called stratified in the strict sense of having been originally deposited as sediment from water. The general adoption by geologists of the term stratified, as applied to these rocks, sufficiently attests their division into beds very a.n.a.logous, at least in form, to ordinary fossiliferous strata. This resemblance is by no means confined to the existence in both occasionally of a laminated structure, but extends to every kind of arrangement which is compatible with the absence of fossils, and of sand, pebbles, ripple-mark, and other characters which the metamorphic theory supposes to have been obliterated by Plutonic action. Thus, for example, we behold alike in the crystalline and fossiliferous formations an alternation of beds varying greatly in composition, colour, and thickness. We observe, for instance, gneiss alternating with layers of black hornblende-schist or of green chlorite-schist, or with granular quartz or limestone; and the interchange of these different strata may be repeated for an indefinite number of times. In the like manner, mica-schist alternates with chlorite-schist, and with beds of pure quartz or of granular limestone. We have already seen that, near the immediate contact of granitic veins and volcanic dikes, very extraordinary alterations in rocks have taken place, more especially in the neighbourhood of granite. It will be useful here to add other ill.u.s.trations, showing that a texture undistinguishable from that which characterises the more crystalline metamorphic formations has actually been superinduced in strata once fossiliferous.

FOSSILIFEROUS STRATA RENDERED METAMORPHIC BY INTRUSIVE Ma.s.sES OF GRANITE.

(FIGURE 623. Ground-plan of altered slate and limestone near granite.

Christiania. The arrows indicate the dip, and the oblique lines the strike of the beds.)

In the southern extremity of Norway there is a large district, on the west side of the fiord of Christiania, which I visited in 1837 with the late Professor Keilhau, in which syenitic granite protrudes in mountain ma.s.ses through fossiliferous strata, and usually sends veins into them at the point of contact.

The stratified rocks, replete with sh.e.l.ls and zoophytes, consist chiefly of shale, limestone, and some sandstone, and all these are invariably altered near the granite for a distance of from 50 to 400 yards. The aluminous shales are hardened, and have become flinty. Sometimes they resemble jasper. Ribboned jasper is produced by the hardening of alternate layers of green and chocolate- coloured schist, each stripe faithfully representing the original lines of stratification. Nearer the granite the schist often contains crystals of hornblende, which are even met with in some places for a distance of several hundred yards from the junction; and this black hornblende is so abundant that eminent geologists, when pa.s.sing through the country, have confounded it with the ancient hornblende-schist, subordinate to the great gneiss formation of Norway. Frequently, between the granite and the hornblende-slate above- mentioned, grains of mica and crystalline feldspar appear in the schist, so that rocks resembling gneiss and mica-schist are produced. Fossils can rarely be detected in these schists, and they are more completely effaced in proportion to the more crystalline texture of the beds, and their vicinity to the granite. In some places the siliceous matter of the schist becomes a granular quartz; and when hornblende and mica are added, the altered rock loses its stratification, and pa.s.ses into a kind of granite. The limestone, which at points remote from the granite is of an earthy texture and blue colour, and often abounds in corals, becomes a white granular marble near the granite, sometimes siliceous, the granular structure extending occasionally upward of 400 yards from the junction; the corals being for the most part obliterated, though sometimes preserved, even in the white marble. Both the altered limestone and hardened slate contain garnets in many places, also ores of iron, lead, and copper, with some silver. These alterations occur equally whether the granite invades the strata in a line parallel to the general strike of the fossiliferous beds, or in a line at right angles to their strike, both of which modes of junction will be seen by the ground-plan in Figure 623. (Keilhau Gaea Norvegica pages 61-63.)

The granite of Cornwall sends forth veins into a coa.r.s.e argillaceous-schist, provincially termed killas. This killas is converted into hornblende-schist near the contact with the veins. These appearances are well seen at the junction of the granite and killas, in St. Michael's Mount, a small island nearly 300 feet high, situated in the bay, at a distance of about three miles from Penzance. The granite of Dartmoor, in Devons.h.i.+re, says Sir H. De la Beche, has intruded itself into the Carboniferous slate and slaty sandstone, twisting and contorting the strata, and sending veins into them. Hence some of the slate rocks have become "micaceous; others more indurated, and with the characters of mica-slate and gneiss; while others again appear converted into a hard zoned rock strongly impregnated with feldspar." (Geological Manual page 479.)

We learn from the investigation of M. Dufrenoy that in the eastern Pyrenees there are mountain ma.s.ses of granite posterior in date to the formations called lias and chalk of that district, and that these fossiliferous rocks are greatly altered in texture, and often charged with iron-ore, in the neighbourhood of the granite. Thus in the environs of St. Martin, near St. Paul de Fenouillet, the chalky limestone becomes more crystalline and saccharoid as it approaches the granite, and loses all trace of the fossils which it previously contained in abundance. At some points, also, it becomes dolomitic, and filled with small veins of carbonate of iron, and spots of red iron-ore. At Rancie the lias nearest the granite is not only filled with iron-ore, but charged with pyrites, tremolite, garnet, and a new mineral somewhat allied to feldspar, called, from the place in the Pyrenees where it occurs, "couzeranite."

"Hornblende-schist," says Dr. MacCulloch, "may at first have been mere clay; for clay or shale is found altered by trap into Lydian stone, a substance differing from hornblende-schist almost solely in compactness and uniformity of texture."

(System of Geology volume 1 pages 210, 211.) "In Shetland," remarks the same author, "argillaceous-schist (or clay-slate), when in contact with granite, is sometimes converted into hornblende-schist, the schist becoming first siliceous, and ultimately, at the contact, hornblende-schist." In like manner gneiss and mica-schist may be nothing more than altered micaceous and argillaceous sandstones, granular quartz may have been derived from siliceous sandstone, and compact quartz from the same materials. Clay-slate may be altered shale, and granular marble may have originated in the form of ordinary limestone, replete with sh.e.l.ls and corals, which have since been obliterated; and, lastly, calcareous sands and marls may have been changed into impure crystalline limestones.

The anthracite and plumbago a.s.sociated with hypogene rocks may have been coal; for not only is coal converted into anthracite in the vicinity of some trap dikes, but we have seen that a like change has taken place generally even far from the contact of igneous rocks, in the disturbed region of the Appalachians.

At Worcester, in the State of Ma.s.sachusetts, 45 miles due west of Boston, a bed of plumbago and impure anthracite occurs, interstratified with mica-schist. It is about two feet in thickness, and has been made use of both as fuel, and in the manufacture of lead pencils. At the distance of 30 miles from the plumbago, there occurs, on the borders of Rhode Island, an impure anthracite in slates containing impressions of coal-plants of the genera Pecopteris, Neuropteris, Calamites, etc. This anthracite is intermediate in character between that of Pennsylvania and the plumbago of Worcester, in which last the gaseous or volatile matter (hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen) is to the carbon only in the proportion of three per cent. After traversing the country in various directions, I came to the conclusion that the carboniferous shales or slates with anthracite and plants, which in Rhode Island often pa.s.s into mica-schists, have at Worcester a.s.sumed a perfectly crystalline and metamorphic texture; the anthracite having been nearly trans.m.u.ted into that state of pure carbon which is called plumbago or graphite. (See Lyell Quarterly Geological Journal volume 1 page 199.)

Now the alterations above described as superinduced in rocks by volcanic dikes and granite veins prove incontestably that powers exist in nature capable of transforming fossiliferous into crystalline strata, a very few simple elements const.i.tuting the component materials common to both cla.s.ses of rocks. These elements, which are enumerated in Table 28.1, may be made to form new combinations by what has been termed Plutonic action, or those chemical changes which are no doubt connected with the pa.s.sage of heat, unusually heated steam and waters, through the strata.

HYDROTHERMAL ACTION, OR THE INFLUENCE OF STEAM AND GASES IN PRODUCING METAMORPHISM.

The experiments of Gregory Watt, in fusing rocks in the laboratory, and allowing them to consolidate by slow cooling, prove distinctly that a rock need not be perfectly melted in order that a re-arrangement of its component particles should take place, and a partial crystallisation ensue. (Philosophical Transactions 1804.) We may easily suppose, therefore, that all traces of sh.e.l.ls and other organic remains may be destroyed, and that new chemical combinations may arise, without the ma.s.s being so fused as that the lines of stratification should be wholly obliterated. We must not, however, imagine that heat alone, such as may be applied to a stone in the open air, can const.i.tute all that is comprised in Plutonic action. We know that volcanoes in eruption not only emit fluid lava, but give off steam and other heated gases, which rush out in enormous volume, for days, weeks, or years continuously, and are even disengaged from lava during its consolidation.

We also know that long after volcanoes have spent their force, hot springs continue for ages to flow out at various points in the same area. In regions, also, subject to violent earthquakes such springs are frequently observed issuing from rents, usually along lines of fault or displacement of the rocks.

These thermal waters are most commonly charged with a variety of mineral ingredients, and they retain a remarkable uniformity of temperature from century to century. A like uniformity is also persistent in the nature of the earthy, metallic, and gaseous substances with which they are impregnated. It is well ascertained that springs, whether hot or cold, charged with carbonic acid, especially with hydrofluoric acid, which is often present in small quant.i.ties, are powerful causes of decomposition and chemical reaction in rocks through which they percolate.

The changes which Daubree has shown to have been produced by the alkaline waters of Plombieres in the Vosges, are more especially instructive. (Daubree Sur le Metamorphisme Paris 1860.) These waters have a heat of 160 degrees F., or an excess of 109 degrees above the average temperature of ordinary springs in that district. They were conveyed by the Romans to baths through long conduits or aqueducts. The foundations of some of their works consisted of a bed of concrete made of lime, fragments of brick, and sandstone. Through this and other masonry the hot waters have been percolating for centuries, and have given rise to various zeolites-- apophyllite and chabazite among others; also to calcareous spar, arragonite, and fluor spar, together with siliceous minerals, such as opal-- all found in the inter-s.p.a.ces of the bricks and mortar, or const.i.tuting part of their re-arranged materials. The quant.i.ty of heat brought into action in this instance in the course of 2000 years has, no doubt, been enormous, but the intensity of it developed at any one moment has been always inconsiderable.

From these facts and from the experiments and observations of Senarmont, Daubree, Delesse, Scheerer, Sorby, Sterry Hunt, and others, we are led to infer that when in the bowels of the earth there are large volumes of matter containing water and various acids intensely heated under enormous pressure, these subterranean fluid ma.s.ses will gradually part with their heat by the escape of steam and various gases through fissures, producing hot springs; or by the pa.s.sage of the same through the pores of the overlying and injected rocks.

Even the most compact rocks may be regarded, before they have been exposed to the air and dried, in the light of sponges filled with water. According to the experiments of Henry, water, under a hydrostatic pressure of 96 feet, will absorb three times as much carbonic acid gas as it can under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere. There are other gases, as well as the carbonic acid, which water absorbs, and more rapidly in proportion to the amount of pressure.

Although the gaseous matter first absorbed would soon be condensed, and part with its heat, yet the continual arrival of fresh supplies from below might, in the course of ages, cause the temperature of the water, and with it that of the containing rock, to be materially raised; the water acts not only as a vehicle of heat, but also by its affinity for various silicates, which, when some of the materials of the invaded rocks are decomposed, form quartz, feldspar, mica, and other minerals. As for quartz, it can be produced under the influence of heat by water holding alkaline silicates in solution, as in the case of the Plombieres springs. The quant.i.ty of water required, according to Daubree, to produce great transformations in the mineral structure of rocks, is very small. As to the heat required, silicates may be produced in the moist way at about incipient red heat, whereas to form the same in the dry way would require a much higher temperature.

M. Fournet, in his description of the metalliferous gneiss near Clermont, in Auvergne, states that all the minute fissures of the rock are quite saturated with free carbonic acid gas; which gas rises plentifully from the soil there and in many parts of the surrounding country. The various elements of the gneiss, with the exception of the quartz, are all softened; and new combinations of the acid with lime, iron, and manganese are continually in progress. (See Principles Index Carbonated Springs etc.)

The power of subterranean gases is well ill.u.s.trated by the stufas of St.

Calogero in the Lipari Islands, where the horizontal strata of tuffs, forming cliffs 200 feet high, have been discoloured in places by the jets of steam often above the boiling point, called "stufas," issuing from the fissures; and similar instances are recorded by M. Virlet of corrosion of rocks near Corinth, and by Dr. Daubeny of decomposition of trachytic rocks by sulphureted hydrogen and muriatic acid gases in the Solfatara, near Naples. In all these instances it is clear that the gaseous fluids must have made their way through vast thicknesses of porous or fissured rocks, and their modifying influence may spread through the crust for thousands of yards in thickness.

It has been urged as an argument against the metamorphic theory, that rocks have a small power of conducting heat, and it is true that when dry, and in the air, they differ remarkably from metals in this respect. The syenite of Norway, as we have seen (Chapter 31), has sometimes altered fossiliferous strata both in the direction of their dip and strike for a distance of a quarter of a mile, but the theory of gneiss and mica-schist above proposed requires us to imagine that the same influence has extended through strata miles in thickness. Professor Bischof has shown what changes may be superinduced, on black marble and other rocks, by the steam of a hot spring having a temperature of no more than 133 degrees to 167 degrees Fahrenheit, and we are becoming more and more acquainted with the prominent part which water is playing in distributing the heat of the interior through mountain ma.s.ses of inc.u.mbent strata, and of introducing into them various mineral elements in a fluid or gaseous state. Such facts may induce us to consider whether many granites and other rocks of that cla.s.s may not sometimes represent merely the extreme of a similar slow metamorphism. But, on the other hand, the heat of lava in a volcanic crater when it is white and glowing like the sun must convince us that the temperature of a column of such a fluid at the depth of many miles exceeds any heat which can ever be witnessed at the surface. That large portions of the Plutonic rocks had been formed under the influence of such intense heat is in perfect accordance with their great volume, uniform composition, and absence of stratification. The forcing also of veins into contiguous stratified or schistose rocks is a natural consequence of the hydrostatic pressure to which columns of molten matter many miles in height must give rise.

OBJECTIONS TO THE METAMORPHIC THEORY CONSIDERED.

It has been objected to the metamorphic theory that the crystalline schists contain a considerable proportion of potash and soda, whilst the sedimentary strata out of which they are supposed to have been formed are usually wanting in alkaline matter. But this reasoning proceeds on mistaken data, for clay, marl, shale, and slate often contain a considerable proportion of alkali, so much so as to make them frequently unfit to be burnt into bricks or pottery, and the Old Red Sandstone in Forfars.h.i.+re and other parts of Scotland, derived from disintegration of granite, contains much triturated feldspar rich in potash. In the common salt by which strata are often largely impregnated, as in Patagonia, much soda is present, and potash enters largely into the composition of fossil sea-weeds, and recent a.n.a.lysis has also shown that the carboniferous strata in England, the Upper and Lower Silurian in East Canada, and the oldest clay-slates in Norway, all contain as much alkali as is generally present in metamorphic rocks.

Another objection has been derived from the alternation of highly crystalline strata with others less crystalline. The heat, it is said, in its ascent from below, must have traversed the less altered schists before it reached a higher and more crystalline bed. In answer to this, it may be observed, that if a number of strata differing greatly in composition from each other be subjected to equal quant.i.ties of heat, or hydrothermal action, there is every probability that some will be much more fusible or soluble than others. Some, for example, will contain soda, potash, lime, or some other ingredient capable of acting as a flux or solvent; while others may be dest.i.tute of the same elements, and so refractory as to be very slightly affected by the same causes. Nor should it be forgotten that, as a general rule, the less crystalline rocks do really occur in the upper, and the more crystalline in the lower part of each metamorphic series.

CHAPTER x.x.xIV.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS CONTINUED.

Definition of slaty Cleavage and Joints.

Supposed Causes of these Structures.

Crystalline Theory of Cleavage.

Mechanical Theory of Cleavage.

Condensation and Elongation of slate Rocks by lateral Pressure.

Lamination of some volcanic Rocks due to Motion.

Whether the Foliation of the crystalline Schists be usually parallel with the original Planes of Stratification.

Examples in Norway and Scotland.

Causes of Irregularity in the Planes of Foliation.

We have already seen that chemical forces of great intensity have frequently acted upon sedimentary and fossiliferous strata long subsequently to their consolidation, and we may next inquire whether the component minerals of the altered rocks usually arrange themselves in planes parallel to the original planes of stratification, or whether, after crystallisation, they more commonly take up a different position.

In order to estimate fairly the merits of this question, we must first define what is meant by the terms cleavage and foliation. There are four distinct forms of structure exhibited in rocks, namely, stratification, joints, slaty cleavage, and foliation; and all these must have different names, even though there be cases where it is impossible, after carefully studying the appearances, to decide upon the cla.s.s to which they belong.

SLATY CLEAVAGE.

(FIGURE 624. Parallel planes of cleavage intersecting curved strata.

(Sedgwick.))

Professor Sedgwick, whose essay "On the Structure of large Mineral Ma.s.ses" first cleared the way towards a better understanding of this difficult subject, observes, that joints are distinguishable from lines of slaty cleavage in this, that the rock intervening between two joints has no tendency to cleave in a direction parallel to the planes of the joints, whereas a rock is capable of indefinite subdivision in the direction of its slaty cleavage. In cases where the strata are curved, the planes of cleavage are still perfectly parallel. This has been observed in the slate rocks of part of Wales (see Figure 624), which consists of a hard greenish slate. The true bedding is there indicated by a number of parallel stripes, some of a lighter and some of a darker colour than the general ma.s.s. Such stripes are found to be parallel to the true planes of stratification, wherever these are manifested by ripple-mark or by beds containing peculiar organic remains. Some of the contorted strata are of a coa.r.s.e mechanical structure, alternating with fine-grained crystalline chloritic slates, in which case the same slaty cleavage extends through the coa.r.s.er and finer beds, though it is brought out in greater perfection in proportion as the materials of the rock are fine and h.o.m.ogeneous. It is only when these are very coa.r.s.e that the cleavage planes entirely vanish. In the Welsh hills these planes are usually inclined at a very considerable angle to the planes of the strata, the average angle being as much as from 30 to 40 degrees. Sometimes the cleavage planes dip towards the same point of the compa.s.s as those of stratification, but often to opposite points. (Geological Transactions second series volume 3 page 461.) The cleavage, as represented in Figure 624, is generally constant over the whole of any area affected by one great set of disturbances, as if the same lateral pressure which caused the crumpling up of the rock along parallel, anticlinal, and synclinal axes caused also the cleavage.

(FIGURE 625. Section in Lower Silurian slates of Cardigans.h.i.+re, showing the cleavage planes bent along the junction of the beds. (T. McK. Hughes.))

Mr. T. McK. Hughes remarks, that where a rough cleavage cuts flag-stones at a considerable angle to the planes of stratification, the rock often splits into large slabs, across which the lines of bedding are frequently seen, but when the cleavage planes approach within about 15 degrees of stratification, the rock is apt to split along the lines of bedding. He has also called my attention to the fact that subsequent movements in a cleaved rock sometimes drag and bend the cleavage planes along the junction of the beds in the manner indicated in Figure 625.

JOINTED STRUCTURE.

In regard to joints, they are natural fissures which often traverse rocks in straight and well-determined lines. They afford to the quarryman, as Sir R.

Murchison observes, when speaking of the phenomenon, as exhibited in Shrops.h.i.+re and the neighbouring counties, the greatest aid in the extraction of blocks of stone; and, if a sufficient number cross each other, the whole ma.s.s of rock is split into symmetrical blocks. The faces of the joints are for the most part smoother and more regular than the surfaces of true strata. The joints are straight-cut c.h.i.n.ks, sometimes slightly open, and often pa.s.sing, not only through layers of successive deposition, but also through b.a.l.l.s of limestone or other matter which have been formed by concretionary action since the original acc.u.mulation of the strata. Such joints, therefore, must often have resulted from one of the last changes superinduced upon sedimentary deposits. (Silurian System page 246.)

(FIGURE 626. Stratification, joints, and cleavage (From Murchison's Silurian System page 245.))

In Figure 626 the flat-surfaces of rock, A, B, C, represent exposed faces of joints, to which the walls of other joints, J-J, are parallel. S-S are the lines of stratification; D, D are lines of slaty cleavage, which intersect the rock at a considerable angle to the planes of stratification.