Facts and Arguments for Darwin Part 5

The most unimportant of all organs would be the s.e.xual organs, and the most essential peculiarity would consist in colour, which is to be referred back to the ovarian egg.

"The embryos, or young states of different animals, resemble each other the more, the younger they are," or, as Johannes Muller expresses it, "they approach the more closely to the common type." Different as may be the ideas connected with the word "type," no one will dispute that the typical form of the penultimate pair of feet in the Amphipoda is that of a simple ambulatory foot, and not that of a chela, for the latter occurs in no single adult Amphipod; we know it only in the young of the genus Brachyscelus, which therefore in this respect undoubtedly depart more widely than the adults from the type of their order. This applies also to the young males of the Sh.o.r.e-hoppers (Orchestia) with regard to the second pair of anterior feet (gnathopoda). In like manner no one will hesitate to accept the possession of seven pairs of feet as a "typical"

peculiarity of the Edriophthalma, which Aga.s.siz, on this account, names Tetradecapoda; the young Isopoda, which are Dodecapoda, are also in this respect further from the "type" than the adults.

It is certainly a rule, and this Darwin's theory would lead us to expect, that in the progress of development those forms which are at first similar gradually depart further from each other; but here, as in other cla.s.ses, the exceptions, for which the Old School has no explanation, are numerous. Not unfrequently we might indeed directly reverse the proposition and a.s.sert that the difference becomes the greater, the further we go back in the development, and this not only in those cases in which one of two nearly allied species is directly developed, and the other pa.s.ses through several larval stages, such as the common Crayfish and the Prawns which are produced from Nauplius-brood. The same may be said, for example, of the Isopoda and Amphipoda. In the adult animals the number of limbs is the same; at the first sight of a Cyrtophium or a Dulichia, and even after the careful examination of a Tanais, we may be in doubt whether we have an Isopod or an Amphipod before us; in the newly-hatched young the number of limbs is different, and if we go back to their existence in the egg, the most pa.s.sing glance to see whether the curvature is upwards or downwards suffices to distinguish even the youngest embryos of the two orders.

In other instances, the courses which lead from a similar starting-point to a similar goal, separate widely in the middle of the development, as in the Prawns with Nauplius-brood already described.

Finally, so that even the last possibility may be exhausted, it sometimes happens that the greatest similarity occurs in the middle of the development. The most striking example of this is furnished by the Cirripedia and Rhizocephala, whether we compare the two orders or the members of each with one another; from a segmentation quite different in its course (see Figures 61 to 64) proceed different forms of Nauplius, these become converted into exceedingly similar pupae, and from the pupae again proceed s.e.xually mature animals, differing from each other toto coelo.

"If the formation of the organs occurs in the order corresponding to their importance, this sequence must of itself be a criterion of their comparative value in cla.s.sification." THAT IS TO SAY, SUPPOSING THE PHYSIOLOGICAL AND CLa.s.sIFICATIONAL VALUE OF AN ORGAN TO COINCIDE! Just as in Christian countries there is a catechismal morality, which every one has upon his lips, but no one considers himself bound to follow, or expects to see followed by anybody else, so also has Zoology its dogmas, which are as universally acknowledged, as they are disregarded in practice. Such a dogma as this is the supposition tacitly made by Aga.s.siz. Of a hundred who feel themselves compelled to give their systematic confession of faith as the introduction to a Manual or Monographic Memoir, ninety-nine will commence by saying that a natural system cannot be founded upon a single character, but that it has to take into account all characters, and the general structure of the animal, but that we must not simply sum up these characters like equivalent magnitudes, that we must not count but weigh them, and determine the importance to be ascribed to each of them according to its physiological significance. This is probably followed by a little jingle of words in general terms on the comparative importance of animal and vegetative organs, circulation, respiration, and the like. But when we come to the work itself, to the discrimination and arrangement of the species, genera, families, etc., in all probability not one of the ninety-nine will pay the least attention to these fine rules, or undertake the hopeless attempt to carry them out in detail. Aga.s.siz, for example, like Cuvier, and in opposition to the majority of the German and English zoologists, regards the Radiata as one of the great primary divisions of the Animal Kingdom, although no one knows anything about the significance of the radiate arrangement in the life of these animals, and notwithstanding that the radiate Echinodermata are produced from bilateral larvae. The "true Fishes" are divided by him into Ctenoids and Cycloids, according as the posterior margin of their scales is denticulated or smooth, a circ.u.mstance the importance of which to the animal must be infinitely small, in comparison to the peculiarities of the dent.i.tion, formation of the fins, number of vertebrae, etc.

And, to return to our Cla.s.s of the Crustacea, has any particular attention been paid in their cla.s.sification to the distinctions prevailing in the "most essential organs"? For instance, to the nervous system? In the Corycaeidae, Claus found all the ventral ganglia fused together into a single broad ma.s.s, and in the Calanidae a long ventral chain of ganglia,--the former, therefore, in this respect resembling the Spider Crabs and the latter the Lobster; but no one would dream on this account of supposing that there was a relations.h.i.+p between the Corycaeidae and the Crabs, or the Calanidae and the Lobsters.--Or to the organs of circulation? We have among the Copepoda, the Cyclopidae and Corycaeidae without a heart, side by side with the Calanidae and Pontellidae with a heart. And in the same way among the Ostracoda, the Cypridinae, which I find possess a heart, place themselves side by side with Cypris and Cythere which have no such organ.--Or to the respiratory apparatus? Milne-Edwards did this when he separated Mysis and Leucifer from the Decapoda, but he himself afterwards saw that this was an error.

In one Cypridina I find branchiae of considerable size, which are entirely wanting in another species, but this does not appear to me to be a reason for separating these species even generically.

On the other hand, what do we know of the physiological significance of the number of segments, and all the other matters which we are accustomed to regard as typical peculiarities of the different organs, and to which we usually ascribe the highest systematic value?

"Those peculiarities which first appear, should be more highly estimated than those which appear subsequently. A system, in order to be true and natural, must agree with the sequence of the organs in the development of the embryo." If the earlier manifested peculiarities are to be estimated more highly than those which afterwards make their appearance, then in those cases in which the structure of the adult animal requires one position in the system, and that of the larva another, the latter and not the former must decide the point. As the Lernaeae and Cirripedes, on account of their Nauplius-brood, were separated from their previous connexions and referred to the Crustacea, we shall, for the same reason, have to separate Peneus from the Prawns and unite it with the Copepoda and Cirripedia. But the most zealous embryomaniac would probably shrink from this course.

A "true and natural system" of the Crustacea to be in accordance with the sequence of the phenomena would have to take into account in the first place the various modes of segmentation, then the position of the embryo, next the number of limbs produced within the egg and so forth, and might be represented somewhat as follows:--

CLa.s.sIS CRUSTACEA.

Sub-cla.s.s I. HOLOSCHISTA.--Segmentation complete. No primitive band.

Nauplius-brood.

Ord. 1. Ceratometopa.--Nauplius with frontal horns. (Cirripedia, Rhizocephala.)

Ord. 2. LEIOMETOPA.--Nauplius without frontal horns. (Copepoda, without Achtheus, etc., Phyllopoda, Peneus.)

Sub-cla.s.s II. HEMISCHISTA.--Segmentation not complete.

A. Nototropa.--Embryo bent upwards.

Ord. 3. Protura.--The tail is first formed. (Mysis.)

Ord. 3. Saccomorpha.--A maggot-like larva-skin is first formed.

(Isopoda.)

B. Gasterotropa.--Embryo bent ventrally.

Ord. 5. Zoeogona.--Full number of limbs not produced in the egg.

Zoea-brood. (The majority of the Podophthalmata.)

Ord. 6. Ametabola.--Full number of limbs produced in the egg. (Astacus, Gecarcinus, Amphipoda less Hyperia ?)

This sample may suffice. The farther we go into details in this direction, the more brilliantly, as may easily be imagined, does the naturalness of such an arrangement as this force itself upon us.

All things considered, we may apply the judgment which Aga.s.siz p.r.o.nounced upon Darwin's theory, with far greater justice to the propositions just examined:--"No theory," says he, "however plausible it may be, can be admitted in science, unless it is supported by facts."

CHAPTER 11. ON THE PROGRESS OF EVOLUTION.

From this scarcely unavoidable but unsatisfactory side-glance upon the old school, which looks down with so great an air of superiority upon Darwin's "intellectual dream" and the "giddy enthusiasm" of its friends, I turn to the more congenial task of considering the developmental history of the Crustacea from the point of view of the Darwinian theory.

Darwin himself, in the thirteenth chapter of his book, has already discussed the conclusions derived from his hypotheses in the domain of developmental history. For a more detailed application of them, however, it is necessary in the first place to trace these general conclusions a little further than he has there done.

The changes by which young animals depart from their parents, and the gradual acc.u.mulation of which causes the production of new species, genera, and families, may occur at an earlier or later period of life,--in the young state, or at the period of s.e.xual maturity. For the latter is by no means always, as in the Insecta, a period of repose; most other animals even then continue to grow and to undergo changes.

(See above, the remarks on the males of the Amphipoda.) Some variations, indeed, from their very nature, can only occur when the young animal has attained the adult stage of development. Thus the Sea Caterpillars (Polynoe) at first possess only a few body-segments, which, during development, gradually increase to a number which is different in different species, but constant in the same species; now before a young animal could exceed the number of segments of its parents, it must of course have attained that number. We may a.s.sume a similar supplementary progress wherever the deviation of the descendants consists in an addition of new segments and limbs.

Descendants therefore reach a new goal, either by deviating sooner or later whilst still on the way towards the form of their parents, or by pa.s.sing along this course without deviation, but then, instead of standing still, advance still farther.

The former mode will have had a predominant action where the posterity of common ancestors const.i.tutes a group of forms standing upon the same level in essential features, as the whole of the Amphipoda, Crabs, or Birds. On the other hand we are led to the a.s.sumption of the second mode of progress, when we seek to deduce from a common original form, animals some of which agree with young states of others.

In the former case the developmental history of the descendants can only agree with that of their ancestors up to a certain point at which their courses separate,--as to their structure in the adult state it will teach us nothing. In the second case the entire development of the progenitors is also pa.s.sed through by the descendants, and, therefore, so far as the production of a species depends upon this second mode of progress, the historical development of the species will be mirrored in its developmental history. In the short period of a few weeks or months, the changing forms of the embryo and larvae will pa.s.s before us, a more or less complete and more or less true picture of the transformations through which the species, in the course of untold thousands of years, has struggled up to its present state.

(FIGURES 65 TO 67. Young Tubicolar worms, magnified with the simple lens about 6 diam.:

FIGURE 65.* Without operculum, Protula-stage. (* Figure 65 is drawn from memory, as the little animals, which I at first took for young Protulae, only attracted my attention when I remarked the appearance of the operculum, which induced me to draw them.)

FIGURE 66. With a barbate opercular peduncle, Filograna-stage;

FIGURE 67. With a naked opercular peduncle, Serpula-stage.)

One of the simplest examples is furnished by the development of the Tubicolar Annelids; but from its very simplicity it appears well adapted to open the eyes of many who, perhaps, would rather not see, and it may therefore find a place here. Three years ago I found on the walls of one of my gla.s.ses some small worm-tubes (Figure 65), the inhabitants of which bore three pairs of barbate branchial filaments, and had no operculum. According to this we should have been obliged to refer them to the genus Protula. A few days afterwards one of the branchial filaments had become thickened at the extremity into a clavate operculum (Figure 66), when the animals reminded me, by the barbate opercular peduncle, of the genus Filograna, only that the latter possesses two opercula. In three days more, during which a new pair of branchial filaments had sprouted forth, the opercular peduncle had lost its lateral filaments (Figure 67), and the worms had become Serpulae. Here the supposition at once presents itself that the primitive tubicolar worm was a Protula,--that some of its descendants, which had already become developed into perfect Protulae, subsequently improved themselves by the formation of an operculum which might protect their tubes from inimical intruders,--and that subsequent descendants of these latter finally lost the lateral filaments of the opercular peduncle, which they, like their ancestors, had developed.

What say the schools to this case? Whence and for what purpose, if the Serpulae were produced or created as ready-formed species, these lateral filaments of the opercular peduncle? To allow them to sprout forth merely for the sake of an invariable plan of structure, even when they must be immediately retracted again as superfluous, would certainly be an evidence rather of childish trifling or dictatorial pedantry, than of infinite wisdom. But no, I am mistaken; from the beginning of all things the Creator knew, that one day the inquisitive children of men would grope about after a.n.a.logies and h.o.m.ologies, and that Christian naturalists would busy themselves with thinking out his Creative ideas; at any rate, in order to facilitate the discernment by the former that the opercular peduncle of the Serpulae is h.o.m.ologous with a branchial filament, He allowed it to make a detour in its development, and pa.s.s through the form of a barbate branchial filament.

The historical record preserved in developmental history is gradually EFFACED as the development strikes into a constantly straighter course from the egg to the perfect animal, and it is frequently SOPHISTICATED by the struggle for existence which the free-living larvae have to undergo.

Thus as the law of inheritance is by no means strict, as it gives room for individual variations with regard to the form of the parents, this is also the case with the succession in time of the developmental processes. Every father of a family who has taken notice of such matters, is well aware that even in children of the same parents, the teeth, for example, are not cut or changed, either at the same age, or in the same order. Now in general it will be useful to an animal to obtain as early as possible those advantages by which it sustains itself in the struggle for existence. A precocious appearance of peculiarities originally acquired at a later period will generally be advantageous, and their r.e.t.a.r.ded appearance disadvantageous; the former, when it appears accidentally, will be preserved by natural selection. It is the same with every change which gives to the larval stages, rendered multifarious by crossed and oblique characters, a more straightforward direction, simplifies and abridges the process of development, and forces it back to an earlier period of life, and finally into the life of the egg.

As this conversion of a development pa.s.sing through different young states into a more direct one, is not the consequence of a mysterious inherent impulse, but dependent upon advances accidentally presenting themselves, it may take place in the most nearly allied animals in the most various ways, and require very different periods of time for its completion. There is one thing, however, that must not be overlooked here. The historical development of a species can hardly ever have taken place in a continuously uniform flow; periods of rest will have alternated with periods of rapid progress. But forms, which in periods of rapid progress were severed from others after a short duration, must have impressed themselves less deeply upon the developmental history of their descendants, than those which repeated themselves unchanged, through a long series of successive generations in periods of rest.

These more fixed forms, less inclined to variation, will present a more tenacious resistance in the transition to direct development, and will maintain themselves in a more uniform manner and to the last, however different may be the course of this process in other respects.

In general, as already stated, it will be advantageous to the young to commence the struggle for existence in the form of their parents and furnished with all their advantages--in general, but not without exceptions. It is perfectly clear that a brood capable of locomotion is almost indispensable to attached animals, and that the larvae of sluggish Mollusca, or of worms burrowing in the ground, etc., by swarming briskly through the sea perform essential services by dispersing the species over wider s.p.a.ces. In other cases a metamorphosis is rendered indispensable by the circ.u.mstance that a division of labour has been set up between the various periods of life; for example, that the larvae have exclusively taken upon themselves the business of nourishment. A further circ.u.mstance to be taken into consideration is the size of the eggs,--a simpler structure may be produced with less material than a more compound one,--the more imperfect the larva, the smaller may the egg be, and the larger is the number of these that the mother can furnish with the same expenditure of material. As a rule, I believe indeed, this advantage of a more numerous brood will not by any means outweigh that of a more perfect brood, but it will do so in those cases in which the chief difficulty of the young animals consists in finding a suitable place for their development, and in which, therefore, it is of importance to disperse the greatest possible number of germs, as in many parasites.

As the conversion of the original development with metamorphosis into direct development is here under discussion, this may be the proper place to say a word as to the already indicated absence of metamorphosis in fresh-water and terrestrial animals the marine allies of which still undergo a transformation. This circ.u.mstance seems to be explicable in two ways. Either species without a metamorphosis migrated especially into the fresh waters, or the metamorphosis was more rapidly got rid of in the emigrants than in their fellows remaining in the sea.

Animals without a metamorphosis would naturally transfer themselves more easily to a new residence, as they had only themselves and not at the same time multifarious young forms to adapt to the new conditions. But in the case of animals with a metamorphosis, the mortality among the larvae, always considerable, must have become still greater under new than under accustomed conditions, every step towards the simplification of the process of development must therefore have given them a still greater preponderance over their fellows, and the effacing of the metamorphosis must have gone on more rapidly. What has taken place in each individual case, whether the species has immigrated after it had lost the metamorphosis, or lost the metamorphosis after its immigration, will not always be easy to decide. When there are marine allies without, or with only a slight metamorphosis, like the Lobster as the cousin of the Cray-fish, we may take up the former supposition; when allies with a metamorphosis still live upon the land or in fresh water, as in the case of Gecarcinus, we may adopt the latter.

That besides this gradual extinction of the primitive history, a FALSIFICATION of the record preserved in the developmental history takes place by means of the struggle for existence which the free-living young states have to undergo, requires no further exposition. For it is perfectly evident that the struggle for existence and natural selection combined with this, must act in the same way, in change and development, upon larvae which have to provide for themselves, as upon adult animals.

The changes of the larvae, independent of the progress of the adult animal, will become the more considerable, the longer the duration of the life of the larva in comparison to that of the adult animal, the greater the difference in their mode of life, and the more sharply marked the division of labour between the different stages of development. These processes have to a certain extent an action opposed to the gradual extinction of the primitive history; they increase the differences between the individual stages of development, and it will be easily seen how even a straightforward course of development may be again converted by them into a development with metamorphosis. By this means many, and it seems to me valid reasons may be brought up in favour of the opinion that the most ancient Insects approached more nearly to the existing Orthoptera, and perhaps to the wingless Blattidae, than to any other order, and that the "complete metamorphosis" of the Beetles, Lepidoptera, etc., is of later origin. There were, I believe, perfect Insects before larvae and pupae; but, on the contrary, Nauplii and Zoeae far earlier than perfect Prawns. In contradistinction to the INHERITED metamorphosis of the Prawns, we may call that of the Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, etc. an ACQUIRED metamorphosis.*

(* I will here briefly give my reasons for the opinion that the so-called "complete metamorphosis" of Insects, in which these animals quit the egg as grubs or caterpillars, and afterwards become quiescent pupae incapable of feeding, was not inherited from the primitive ancestor of all Insects, but acquired at a later period.

The order Orthoptera, including the Pseudoneuroptera (Ephemera, Libellula, etc.) appears to approach nearest to the primitive form of Insects. In favour of this view we have:--

1. The structure of their buccal organs, especially the formation of the labium, "which retains, either perfectly or approximately, the original form of a second pair of maxillae" (Gerstacker).