Europe in the Sixteenth Century 1494-1598 Part 36

5. Since the n.o.bles and clergy were exempt from the Taille--the first because they served in the feudal array; the latter because of their clerical privileges--the deputies of these two orders did not support the Tiers etat in their attempt to control the purse. Thus the States-General lost the control of the purse.

6. There was no efficient local government like that of the English s.h.i.+re. The real power being in the hands of the royal officials, the Baillis and the Seneschals, and later, of the Intendants.

Provincial Estates.--It is true that all the Provinces of France originally had their Provincial Estates composed of three orders.

(1) But in many Provinces they were artificial creations.

(2) They were weakened by the same cla.s.s divisions as the States-General.

Accordingly after the fifteenth century many Provinces lost their Estates, and finally only some four survived the reign of Louis XIV., and even those had but little power beyond that of a.s.sessing the Taille.

The Church.--The Church had its

(1) _Ecclesiastical Courts_, which as elsewhere in Europe had attempted to extend their jurisdiction very widely, not only over clergy but over laity. By the end of the fifteenth century, however, their jurisdiction was confined to offences of clerics or laics against morals, the law or doctrine of the Church, and to cases concerning the marriage and death-bed--_e.g._ divorce, wills, etc.; any attempt on the part of the Ecclesiastical Courts to encroach on the domain of secular jurisdiction being met by the Appels comme d'abus (abuse), which were presented to the Parlement of Paris.

(2) Its a.s.semblies, in which, in and after the sixteenth century, the clergy voted 'dons gratuits' (voluntary offerings) to the Crown.

The relations of the Church to the Crown and to the Pope were further defined by the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, and the Concordat of Bologna (cf. p. 81).

TAXATION.

The revenue during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was drawn from the following sources:--

I. The Royal Domain.

(_a_) Feudal incidents.

(_b_) Profits of Justice.

(_c_) Rights appertaining to the King as Sovereign--_e.g._ of succeeding to property of aliens dying without heirs, and of all b.a.s.t.a.r.ds; fines on land granted in mortmain.

II. Direct Taxes.

(1) _The Taille_, which was of two kinds--

(_a_) In the _Pays d'etats_ it was generally a tax on the value of land, a.s.sessed by regular a.s.sessments, under orders of the Provincial a.s.sembly.

(_b_) In the other parts of France (the _Pays d'election_), it was a tax levied on presumed income derived from whatever source, and a.s.sessed in a very arbitrary fas.h.i.+on by elus, who were responsible to the Cour des Aides.

_Exempt from the Taille_ were n.o.bles following arms, Clergy, Students at the Universities, Royal Officials, Munic.i.p.al Authorities. Thus the tax fell practically on the lower cla.s.ses.

(2) _Dons Gratuits._--Taxes on clergy voted by ecclesiastical a.s.semblies.

III. Indirect Taxes.

(1) _Aides._--Dues levied on the sale of food-stuffs, wine, and other articles.

(2) _Gabelles._--Salt was a royal monopoly; and every household had to buy so much salt for every member above the age of eight. The price was very high, but varied, as well as the amount to be bought, in different Provinces.

(3) _Customs_ at the frontiers of every Province. These in later days were so heavy that a cask of wine would pay its value before it reached Paris.

(4) _Sale of Offices._--By the end of the sixteenth century there was scarcely any royal office which was not sold.

The Aides, Gabelles, and Customs were in the hands of farmers of the taxes, who exercised great extortion.

APPENDIX II

CONSt.i.tUTION OF FLORENCE IN THE FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES.

I. Based on System of _Guilds_ (since 1282), cf. Von Reumont, Lorenzo de Medici, vol. i. pp. 15 and 67. Villari, _Florence_, p. 312 ff.

Seven Greater Arti = Popolo Gra.s.so.

Fourteen Lesser Arti = Popolo Minuto.

Each with its Council, Consuls, and Proconsuls. Number of eligible citizens (Statuali), some 5000 out of 100,000.

II. Executive.--The _College,_ composed of Signory and Collegi--_I tre Maggiori_ (offices).

(1) _Signoria_ appointed for two months. Its members (unpaid with exception of its Secretary, and Chancellor), lived in Palazzo Publico at public cost.

Powers.--(_a_) Initiation of Legislation.

(_b_) Supreme Executive power.

(_c_) Right of summoning a Parlamento.

Members.--A. _Gonfalonier of Justice_ (first inst.i.tuted 1293), must be forty-five years of age and a member of one of Arti Maggiori. Presided over all Councils--and could call out the Militia. Originally elected by the Councils, but subsequently appointed by lot. Cf. below.

B. _Eight Priori._--Two from each quarter of the city (originally elected by the Arts), must be thirty years old and members of a guild (six from Arti Maggiori, two from Minori since 1345). Each Prior presided with Gonfalonier for three days, and could put any measure to the vote if Gonfalonier refused. ('Il proposto.')

(2) _The Colleagues_ (_Collegi_).

(_a_) Twelve _Buonuomini_ (nine from greater, three from lesser Arts). These acted as a Privy Council and check on the Signory.

(_b_) Sixteen _Gonfaloniers_ of the sixteen militia companies (four from each quarter of the city), under the _Capitano del Popolo_.

(_c_) Nine a.s.sessors of the Priors.

A permanent paid Secretary called 'Second Chancellor.'

_Exceptional. Capitani di Parte Guelfa._--These inst.i.tuted in 1297, for protection of city against Ghibellines, were continued long after danger had pa.s.sed away. They were from three to nine in number, elected for two months, and empowered to administer proceeds of confiscated property of Ghibellines exiled or condemned, and as these sums were large the Capitani undertook the maintenance of fortresses and defences and public buildings.

By Law of 1358 all who held or had held office might be accused openly or secretly before the Capitani as being no genuine Guelph. No witnesses for defence allowed--and if the accusation was supported by six witnesses worthy of belief the accused could be condemned to fine or death, without appeal.

By the end of the fourteenth century, however, this tyrannical organisation had somewhat lost its power.