The Singularity Is Near_ When Humans Transcend Biology Part 32

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30. 30. R. H. Hahnloser et al., "Digital Selection and a.n.a.logue Amplification Coexist in a Cortex-Inspired Silicon Circuit," R. H. Hahnloser et al., "Digital Selection and a.n.a.logue Amplification Coexist in a Cortex-Inspired Silicon Circuit," Nature Nature 405.6789 (June 22, 2000): 94751; "MIT and Bell Labs Researchers Create Electronic Circuit That Mimics the Brain's Circuitry," 405.6789 (June 22, 2000): 94751; "MIT and Bell Labs Researchers Create Electronic Circuit That Mimics the Brain's Circuitry," MIT News MIT News, June 21, 2000, http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/nr/2000/machinebrain.html.

31. 31. Manuel Trajtenberg, Manuel Trajtenberg, Economic a.n.a.lysis of Product Innovation: The Case of CT Scanners Economic a.n.a.lysis of Product Innovation: The Case of CT Scanners (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 1990); Michael H. Priebe, Ph.D., president, CEO, NEUROMED GmbH; P-M. L. Robitaille, A. M. Abduljalil, and A. Kangarlu, "Ultra High Resolution Imaging of the Human Head at 8 Tesla: 2K x 2K for Y2K," (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 1990); Michael H. Priebe, Ph.D., president, CEO, NEUROMED GmbH; P-M. L. Robitaille, A. M. Abduljalil, and A. Kangarlu, "Ultra High Resolution Imaging of the Human Head at 8 Tesla: 2K x 2K for Y2K," Journal of Computer a.s.sisted Tomography Journal of Computer a.s.sisted Tomography 24.1 (JanuaryFebruary 2000): 28. 24.1 (JanuaryFebruary 2000): 28.

32. 32. Seong-Gi Kim, "Progress in Understanding Functional Imaging Signals," Seong-Gi Kim, "Progress in Understanding Functional Imaging Signals," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100.7 (April 1, 2003): 355052, http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/100/7/3550. See also Seong-Gi Kim et al., "Localized Cerebral Blood Flow Response at Submillimeter Columnar Resolution," 100.7 (April 1, 2003): 355052, http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/100/7/3550. See also Seong-Gi Kim et al., "Localized Cerebral Blood Flow Response at Submillimeter Columnar Resolution," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98.19 (September 11,2001): 109049, httpi//www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/98/19/10904. 98.19 (September 11,2001): 109049, httpi//www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/98/19/10904.

33. 33. K. K. Kwong et al., "Dynamic Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Human Brain Activity During Primary Sensory Stimulation," K. K. Kwong et al., "Dynamic Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Human Brain Activity During Primary Sensory Stimulation," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 89.12 (June 15, 1992): 567579. 89.12 (June 15, 1992): 567579.

34. 34. C. S. Roy and C. S. Sherrington, "On the Regulation of the Blood Supply of the Brain," C. S. Roy and C. S. Sherrington, "On the Regulation of the Blood Supply of the Brain," Journal of Physiology Journal of Physiology 11 (1890): 85105. 11 (1890): 85105.

35. 35. M. I. Posner et al., "Localization of Cognitive Operations in the Human Brain," M. I. Posner et al., "Localization of Cognitive Operations in the Human Brain," Science Science 240.4859 (June 17, 1988): 162731. 240.4859 (June 17, 1988): 162731.

36. 36. F. M. Mottaghy et al., "Facilitation of Picture Naming after Repet.i.tive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation," F. M. Mottaghy et al., "Facilitation of Picture Naming after Repet.i.tive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation," Neurology Neurology 53.8 (November 10, 1999): 180612. 53.8 (November 10, 1999): 180612.

37. 37. Daithi o hAnluain, "TMS: Twilight Zone Science?" Daithi o hAnluain, "TMS: Twilight Zone Science?" Wired News Wired News, April 18, 2002, http://wired.com/news/medtech/0,1286,51699.00.html.

38. 38. Lawrence Osborne, "Savant for a Day," Lawrence Osborne, "Savant for a Day," New York Times Magazine New York Times Magazine, June 22, 2003, available at http://www.wireheading.com/brainstim/savant.html.

39. 39. Bruce H. McCormick, "Brain Tissue Scanner Enables Brain Microstructure Surveys," Bruce H. McCormick, "Brain Tissue Scanner Enables Brain Microstructure Surveys," Neurocomputing Neurocomputing 4446 (2002): 1113-18; Bruce H. McCormick, "Design of a Brain Tissue Scanner," Neurocomputing 26-27 (1999): 1025-32; Bruce H. McCormick, "Development of the Brain Tissue Scanner," 4446 (2002): 1113-18; Bruce H. McCormick, "Design of a Brain Tissue Scanner," Neurocomputing 26-27 (1999): 1025-32; Bruce H. McCormick, "Development of the Brain Tissue Scanner," Brain Networks Laboratory Technical Report Brain Networks Laboratory Technical Report, Texas A&M University Department of Computer Science, College Station, Tex., March 18, 2002, http://research.cs.tamu.edu/bnl/pubs/McC02.pdf.

40. 40. Leif Finkel et al., "Meso-scale Optical Brain Imaging of Perceptual Learning," University of Pennsylvania grant 200001737 (2000). Leif Finkel et al., "Meso-scale Optical Brain Imaging of Perceptual Learning," University of Pennsylvania grant 200001737 (2000).

41. 41. E. Callaway and R. Yuste, "Stimulating Neurons with Light," E. Callaway and R. Yuste, "Stimulating Neurons with Light," Current Opinions in Neurobiology Current Opinions in Neurobiology 12.5 (October 2002): 58792. 12.5 (October 2002): 58792.

42. 42. B. L. Sabatini and K. Svoboda, "a.n.a.lysis of Calcium Channels in Single Spines Using Optical Fluctuation a.n.a.lysis," B. L. Sabatini and K. Svoboda, "a.n.a.lysis of Calcium Channels in Single Spines Using Optical Fluctuation a.n.a.lysis," Nature Nature 408.6812 (November 30, 2000): 58993. 408.6812 (November 30, 2000): 58993.

43. 43. John Whitfield, "Lasers Operate Inside Single Cells," [email protected], October 6, 2003, http://www.nature.com/nsu/030929/030929-12.html (subscription required). Mazur's lab: http://mazur-www.harvard.edu/research/. Jason M. Samonds and A. B. Bonds, "From Another Angle: Differences in Cortical Coding Between Fine and Coa.r.s.e Discrimination of Orientation," John Whitfield, "Lasers Operate Inside Single Cells," , October 6, 2003, http://www.nature.com/nsu/030929/030929-12.html (subscription required). Mazur's lab: http://mazur-www.harvard.edu/research/. Jason M. Samonds and A. B. Bonds, "From Another Angle: Differences in Cortical Coding Between Fine and Coa.r.s.e Discrimination of Orientation," Journal of Neurophysiology Journal of Neurophysiology 91 (2004): 11931202. 91 (2004): 11931202.

44. 44. Robert A. Freitas Jr., Robert A. Freitas Jr., Nanomedicine Nanomedicine, vol. 2A, Biocompatibility Biocompatibility, section 15.6.2, "Bloodstream Intrusiveness" (Georgetown, Tex.: Landes Bioscience, 2003), pp. 15759, http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMIIA/15.6.2.htm.

45. 45. Robert A. Freitas Jr., Robert A. Freitas Jr., Nanomedicine Nanomedicine, vol. 1, Basic Capabilities Basic Capabilities, section 7.3, "Communication Networks" (Georgetown, Tex.: Landes Bioscience, 1999), pp. 18688, http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/7.3.htm.

46. 46. Robert A. Freitas Jr., Robert A. Freitas Jr., Nanomedicine Nanomedicine, vol. 1, Basic Capabilities Basic Capabilities, section 9.4.4.3, "Intercellular Pa.s.sage" (Georgetown, Tex.: Landes Bioscience, 1999), pp. 32021, http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/9.4.4.3.htm#p2.

47. 47. Keith L. Black, M.D., and Nagendra S. Ningaraj, "Modulation of Brain Tumor Capillaries for Enhanced Drug Delivery Selectively to Brain Tumor," Keith L. Black, M.D., and Nagendra S. Ningaraj, "Modulation of Brain Tumor Capillaries for Enhanced Drug Delivery Selectively to Brain Tumor," Cancer Control Cancer Control 11.3 (May/June 2004): 16573, http://www.moffitt.usf.edu/pubs/ccj/v11n3/pdf/165.pdf. 11.3 (May/June 2004): 16573, http://www.moffitt.usf.edu/pubs/ccj/v11n3/pdf/165.pdf.

48. 48. Robert A. Freitas Jr., Robert A. Freitas Jr., Nanomedicine Nanomedicine, vol. 1, Basic Capabilities Basic Capabilities, section 4.1, "Nanosensor Technology" (Georgetown, Tex.: Landes Bioscience, 1999), p. 93, http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/4.1.htm.

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50. 50. Peter D. Kramer, Peter D. Kramer, Listening to Prozac Listening to Prozac (New York: Viking, 1993). (New York: Viking, 1993).

51. 51. LeDoux's research is on the brain regions that deal with threatening stimuli, of which the central player is the amygdala, an almond-shaped region of neurons located at the base of the brain. The amygdala stores memories of threatening stimuli and controls responses having to do with fear. LeDoux's research is on the brain regions that deal with threatening stimuli, of which the central player is the amygdala, an almond-shaped region of neurons located at the base of the brain. The amygdala stores memories of threatening stimuli and controls responses having to do with fear.

MIT brain researcher Tomaso Poggio points out that "synaptic plasticity is one hardware substratum for learning but it may be important to emphasize that learning is much more than memory." See T. Poggio and E. Bizzi, "Generalization in Vision and Motor Control," Nature Nature 431 (2004): 768-74. See also E. Benson, "The Synaptic Self' APA Online, November 2002, http://www.apa.org/monitor/nov02/synaptic.html. 431 (2004): 768-74. See also E. Benson, "The Synaptic Self' APA Online, November 2002, http://www.apa.org/monitor/nov02/synaptic.html.

52. 52. Anthony J. Bell, "Levels and Loops: The Future of Artificial Intelligence and Neuroscience," Anthony J. Bell, "Levels and Loops: The Future of Artificial Intelligence and Neuroscience," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 354.1352 (December 29,1999): 201320, http://www.cnl.salk.edu/~tony/ptrsl.pdf. 354.1352 (December 29,1999): 201320, http://www.cnl.salk.edu/~tony/ptrsl.pdf.

53. 53. Peter Dayan and Larry Abbott, Peter Dayan and Larry Abbott, Theoretical Neuroscience: Computational and Mathematical Modeling of Neural Systems Theoretical Neuroscience: Computational and Mathematical Modeling of Neural Systems (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: MIT Press, 2001). (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: MIT Press, 2001).

54. 54. D. O. Hebb, D. O. Hebb, The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory (New York: Wiley, 1949). (New York: Wiley, 1949).

55. 55. Michael Domjan and Barbara Burkhard, Michael Domjan and Barbara Burkhard, The Principles of Learning and Behavior The Principles of Learning and Behavior, 3d ed. (Pacific Grove, Calif.: Brooks/Cole, 1993).

56. 56. J. Quintana and J. M. Fuster, "From Perception to Action: Temporal Integrative Functions of Prefrontal and Parietal Neurons," J. Quintana and J. M. Fuster, "From Perception to Action: Temporal Integrative Functions of Prefrontal and Parietal Neurons," Cerebral Cortex Cerebral Cortex 9.3 (April-May 1999): 21321; W. F.Asaad, G. Rainer, and E. K. Miller, "Neural Activity in the Primate Prefrontal Cortex During a.s.sociative Learning," 9.3 (April-May 1999): 21321; W. F.Asaad, G. Rainer, and E. K. Miller, "Neural Activity in the Primate Prefrontal Cortex During a.s.sociative Learning," Neuron Neuron 21.6 (December 1998): 13991407. 21.6 (December 1998): 13991407.

57. 57. G. G. Turrigiano et al., "Activity-Dependent Scaling of Quantal Amplitude in Neocortical Neurons," G. G. Turrigiano et al., "Activity-Dependent Scaling of Quantal Amplitude in Neocortical Neurons," Nature Nature 391.6670 (February 26, 1998): 89296; R. J. O'Brien et al., "Activity-Dependent Modulation of Synaptic AMPA Receptor Acc.u.mulation," 391.6670 (February 26, 1998): 89296; R. J. O'Brien et al., "Activity-Dependent Modulation of Synaptic AMPA Receptor Acc.u.mulation," Neuron Neuron 21.5 (November 1998): 106778. 21.5 (November 1998): 106778.

58. 58. From "A New Window to View How Experiences Rewire the Brain," Howard Hughes Medical Inst.i.tute (December 19, 2002), http://www.hhmi.org/news/svoboda2.html. See also J. T. Trachtenberg et al., "Long-Term in Vivo Imaging of Experience-Dependent Synaptic Plasticity in Adult Cortex," From "A New Window to View How Experiences Rewire the Brain," Howard Hughes Medical Inst.i.tute (December 19, 2002), http://www.hhmi.org/news/svoboda2.html. See also J. T. Trachtenberg et al., "Long-Term in Vivo Imaging of Experience-Dependent Synaptic Plasticity in Adult Cortex," Nature Nature 420.6917 (December 2002): 78894, http://cpmcnet.columbia.edu/dept/physio/physi02/Trachtenberg_NATURE.pdf; and Karen Zita and Karel Svoboda, "Activity-Dependent Synaptogenesis in the Adult Mammalian Cortex," 420.6917 (December 2002): 78894, http://cpmcnet.columbia.edu/dept/physio/physi02/Trachtenberg_NATURE.pdf; and Karen Zita and Karel Svoboda, "Activity-Dependent Synaptogenesis in the Adult Mammalian Cortex," Neuron Neuron 35.6 (September 2002): 101517, http://svobodalab.cshl.edu/reprints/2414zito02neur.pdf. 35.6 (September 2002): 101517, http://svobodalab.cshl.edu/reprints/2414zito02neur.pdf.

59. 59. See http://whyfiles.org/184make_memory/4.html. For more information on neuronal spines and memory, see J. Grutzendler et al., "Long-Term Dendritic Spine Stability in the Adult Cortex," See http://whyfiles.org/184make_memory/4.html. For more information on neuronal spines and memory, see J. Grutzendler et al., "Long-Term Dendritic Spine Stability in the Adult Cortex," Nature Nature 420.6917 (Dec. 1926, 2002): 81216. 420.6917 (Dec. 1926, 2002): 81216.

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61. 61. Scott Makeig, "Swartz Center for Computational Neuroscience Vision Overview," http://www.sccn.ucsd.edu/VisionOverview.html. Scott Makeig, "Swartz Center for Computational Neuroscience Vision Overview," http://www.sccn.ucsd.edu/VisionOverview.html.

62. 62. D. H. Hubel and T.N. Wiesel, "Binocular Interaction in Striate Cortex of Kittens Reared with Artificial Squint," D. H. Hubel and T.N. Wiesel, "Binocular Interaction in Striate Cortex of Kittens Reared with Artificial Squint," Journal of Neurophysiology Journal of Neurophysiology 28.6 (November 1965): 104159. 28.6 (November 1965): 104159.

63. 63. Jeffrey M. Schwartz and Sharon Begley, Jeffrey M. Schwartz and Sharon Begley, The Mind and the Brain: Neuroplasticity and the Power of Mental Force The Mind and the Brain: Neuroplasticity and the Power of Mental Force (New York: Regan Books, 2002). See also C. Xerri, M. Merzenich et al., "The Plasticity of Primary Somatosensory Cortex Paralleling Sensorimotor Skill Recovery from Stroke in Adult Monkeys," (New York: Regan Books, 2002). See also C. Xerri, M. Merzenich et al., "The Plasticity of Primary Somatosensory Cortex Paralleling Sensorimotor Skill Recovery from Stroke in Adult Monkeys," The Journal of Neurophysiology The Journal of Neurophysiology, 79.4 (April 1980): 211948. See also S. Begley, "Survival of the Busiest," Wall Street Journal Wall Street Journal, October 11, 2002, http://webreprints.djreprints.com/606120211414.html.

64. 64. Paula Tallal et al., "Language Comprehension in Language-Learning Impaired Children Improved with Acoustically Modified Speech," Paula Tallal et al., "Language Comprehension in Language-Learning Impaired Children Improved with Acoustically Modified Speech," Science Science 271 (January 5, 1996): 8184. Paula Tallal is Board of Governors Professor of Neuroscience and codirector of the CMBN (Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience) at Rutgers University, and cofounder and director of SCIL (Scientific Learning Corporation); see http://www.cmbn.rutgers.edu/faculty/tallal.html. See also Paula Tallal, "Language Learning Impairment: Integrating Research and Remediation," 271 (January 5, 1996): 8184. Paula Tallal is Board of Governors Professor of Neuroscience and codirector of the CMBN (Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience) at Rutgers University, and cofounder and director of SCIL (Scientific Learning Corporation); see http://www.cmbn.rutgers.edu/faculty/tallal.html. See also Paula Tallal, "Language Learning Impairment: Integrating Research and Remediation," New Horizons for Learning New Horizons for Learning 4.4 (AugustSeptember 1998), http://www.new horizons.org/neuro/tallal.htm, A. Pascual-Leone, "The Brain That Plays Music and Is Changed by It," 4.4 (AugustSeptember 1998), http://www.new horizons.org/neuro/tallal.htm, A. Pascual-Leone, "The Brain That Plays Music and Is Changed by It," Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 930 (June 2001): 31529. See also note 63 above. 930 (June 2001): 31529. See also note 63 above.

65. 65. F.A.Wilson, S. P.Scalaidhe, and P. S. Goldman-Rakic, "Dissociation of Object and Spatial Processing Domains in Primate Prefrontal Cortex." F.A.Wilson, S. P.Scalaidhe, and P. S. Goldman-Rakic, "Dissociation of Object and Spatial Processing Domains in Primate Prefrontal Cortex." Science Science 260.5116 (June 25, 1993): 195558. 260.5116 (June 25, 1993): 195558.

66. 66. C. Buechel, J. T.Coull, and K. J. Friston, "The Predictive Valueof Changes in Effective Connectivity for Human Learning," C. Buechel, J. T.Coull, and K. J. Friston, "The Predictive Valueof Changes in Effective Connectivity for Human Learning," Science Science 283.5407 (March 5,1999): 153841. 283.5407 (March 5,1999): 153841.

67. 67. They produced dramatic images of brain cells forming temporary and permanent connections in response to various stimuli, ill.u.s.trating structural changes between neurons that, many scientists have long believed, take place when we store memories. "Pictures Reveal How Nerve Cells Form Connections to Store Short- and Long-Term Memories in Brain," University of California, San Diego, November 29, 2001, http://ucsdnews.ucsd.edu/newsrel/science/mcceli.htm; M. A. Colicos et al., "Remodeling of Synaptic Action Induced by Photoconductive Stimulation," They produced dramatic images of brain cells forming temporary and permanent connections in response to various stimuli, ill.u.s.trating structural changes between neurons that, many scientists have long believed, take place when we store memories. "Pictures Reveal How Nerve Cells Form Connections to Store Short- and Long-Term Memories in Brain," University of California, San Diego, November 29, 2001, http://ucsdnews.ucsd.edu/newsrel/science/mcceli.htm; M. A. Colicos et al., "Remodeling of Synaptic Action Induced by Photoconductive Stimulation," Cell Cell 107.5 (November 30, 2001): 60516. Video link: http://www.qflux.net/NeuroStim01.rm, Neural Silicon Interface-Quantum Flux. 107.5 (November 30, 2001): 60516. Video link: http://www.qflux.net/NeuroStim01.rm, Neural Silicon Interface-Quantum Flux.

68. 68. S. Lowel and W. Singer, "Selection of Intrinsic Horizontal Connections in the Visual Cortex by Correlated Neuronal Activity," S. Lowel and W. Singer, "Selection of Intrinsic Horizontal Connections in the Visual Cortex by Correlated Neuronal Activity," Science Science 255.5041 (January 10, 1992): 20912. 255.5041 (January 10, 1992): 20912.

69. 69. K. Si et al., "A Neuronal Isoform of CPEB Regulates Local Protein Synthesis and Stabilizes Synapse-Specific Long-Term Facilitation in Aplysia," K. Si et al., "A Neuronal Isoform of CPEB Regulates Local Protein Synthesis and Stabilizes Synapse-Specific Long-Term Facilitation in Aplysia," Cell Cell 115.7 (December 26, 2003): 893904; K. Si, S. Lindquist, and E. R. Kandel, "A Neuronal Isoform of the Aplysia CPEB Has Prion-Like Properties," 115.7 (December 26, 2003): 893904; K. Si, S. Lindquist, and E. R. Kandel, "A Neuronal Isoform of the Aplysia CPEB Has Prion-Like Properties," Cell Cell 115.7 (December 26, 2003): 87991. These researchers have found that CPEB may help form and preserve long-term memories by undergoing shape changes in synapses similar to deformations of prions (protein fragments implicated in mad-cow disease and other neurologic illnesses). The study suggests that this protein does its good work while in a prion state, contradicting a widely held belief that a protein that has prion activity is toxic or at least doesn't function properly. This prion mechanism may also have roles in areas such as cancer maintenance and organ development, suspects Eric R. Kandel, University Professor of physiology and cell biophysics, psychiatry, biochemistry, and molecular biophysics at Columbia University and winner of a 2000 n.o.bel Prize for Medicine. See Whitehead Inst.i.tute press release, http://www.wi.mit.edu/nap/features/nap_feature_memory.html. 115.7 (December 26, 2003): 87991. These researchers have found that CPEB may help form and preserve long-term memories by undergoing shape changes in synapses similar to deformations of prions (protein fragments implicated in mad-cow disease and other neurologic illnesses). The study suggests that this protein does its good work while in a prion state, contradicting a widely held belief that a protein that has prion activity is toxic or at least doesn't function properly. This prion mechanism may also have roles in areas such as cancer maintenance and organ development, suspects Eric R. Kandel, University Professor of physiology and cell biophysics, psychiatry, biochemistry, and molecular biophysics at Columbia University and winner of a 2000 n.o.bel Prize for Medicine. See Whitehead Inst.i.tute press release, http://www.wi.mit.edu/nap/features/nap_feature_memory.html.

70. 70. M. C. Anderson et al., "Neural Systems Underlying the Suppression of Unwanted Memories," M. C. Anderson et al., "Neural Systems Underlying the Suppression of Unwanted Memories," Science Science 303.5655 (January 9, 2004): 232-35. The findings could encourage the development of new ways for people to overcome traumatizing memories. Keay Davidson, "Study Suggests Brain Is Built to Forget: MRIs in Stanford Experiments Indicate Active Suppression of Unneeded Memories," 303.5655 (January 9, 2004): 232-35. The findings could encourage the development of new ways for people to overcome traumatizing memories. Keay Davidson, "Study Suggests Brain Is Built to Forget: MRIs in Stanford Experiments Indicate Active Suppression of Unneeded Memories," San Francisco Chronicle San Francisco Chronicle, January 9, 2004, http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2004/01/09/FORGET.TMP&type=science.

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72. 72. H. van Praag, G. Kempermann, and F.H. Gage, "Running Increases Cell Proliferation and Neurogenesis in the Adult Mouse Dentate Gyrus," H. van Praag, G. Kempermann, and F.H. Gage, "Running Increases Cell Proliferation and Neurogenesis in the Adult Mouse Dentate Gyrus," Nature Neuroscience Nature Neuroscience 2.3 (March 1999): 26670. 2.3 (March 1999): 26670.

73. 73. Minsky and Papert, Minsky and Papert, Perceptrons Perceptrons.

74. 74. Ray Kurzweil, Ray Kurzweil, The Age of Spiritual Machines The Age of Spiritual Machines (New York: Viking, 1999), p. 79. (New York: Viking, 1999), p. 79.

75. 75. Basis functions are nonlinear functions that can be combined linearly (by adding together multiple weighted-basis functions) to approximate any nonlinear function. Pouget and Snyder, "Computational Approaches to Sensorimotor Transformations," Basis functions are nonlinear functions that can be combined linearly (by adding together multiple weighted-basis functions) to approximate any nonlinear function. Pouget and Snyder, "Computational Approaches to Sensorimotor Transformations," Nature Neuroscience Nature Neuroscience 3.11 Supplement (November 2000): 119298. 3.11 Supplement (November 2000): 119298.

76. 76. T. Poggio, "A Theory of How the Brain Might Work," in T. Poggio, "A Theory of How the Brain Might Work," in Proceedings of Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quant.i.tative Biology Proceedings of Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quant.i.tative Biology 4 (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1990), 899910. Also see T. Poggio and E. Bizzi, "Generalization in Vision and Motor Control," 4 (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1990), 899910. Also see T. Poggio and E. Bizzi, "Generalization in Vision and Motor Control," Nature Nature 431 (2004): 76874. 431 (2004): 76874.

77. 77. R. Llinas and J. P. Welsh, "On the Cerebellum and Motor Learning," R. Llinas and J. P. Welsh, "On the Cerebellum and Motor Learning," Current Opinion in Neurobiology Current Opinion in Neurobiology 3.6 (December 1993): 95865; E. Courchesne and G. Allen, "Prediction and Preparation, Fundamental Functions of the Cerebellum," 3.6 (December 1993): 95865; E. Courchesne and G. Allen, "Prediction and Preparation, Fundamental Functions of the Cerebellum," Learning and Memory Learning and Memory 4.1 (MayJune 1997): 1-35; J. M. Bower, "Control of Sensory Data Acquisition," 4.1 (MayJune 1997): 1-35; J. M. Bower, "Control of Sensory Data Acquisition," International Review of Neurobiology International Review of Neurobiology 41 (1997): 489513. 41 (1997): 489513.

78. 78. J. Voogd and M. Glickstein, "The Anatomy of the Cerebellum," J. Voogd and M. Glickstein, "The Anatomy of the Cerebellum," Trends in Neuroscience Trends in Neuroscience 21.9 (September 1998): 37075; John C. Eccles, Masao Ito, and Janos Szentagothai, 21.9 (September 1998): 37075; John C. Eccles, Masao Ito, and Janos Szentagothai, The Cerebellum as a Neuronal Machine The Cerebellum as a Neuronal Machine (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1967); Masao Ito, (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1967); Masao Ito, The Cerebellum and Neural Control The Cerebellum and Neural Control (New York: Raven, 1984). (New York: Raven, 1984).

79. 79. N. Bernstein, N. Bernstein, The Coordination and Regulation of Movements The Coordination and Regulation of Movements (New York: Pergamon Press, 1967). (New York: Pergamon Press, 1967).

80. 80. U. S. Office of Naval Research press release, "Boneless, Brainy, and Ancient," September 26, 2001, http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2001-11/oonr-bba112601.php; the octopus arm "could very well be the basis of next-generation robotic arms for undersea, s.p.a.ce, as well as terrestrial applications." U. S. Office of Naval Research press release, "Boneless, Brainy, and Ancient," September 26, 2001, http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2001-11/oonr-bba112601.php; the octopus arm "could very well be the basis of next-generation robotic arms for undersea, s.p.a.ce, as well as terrestrial applications."

81. 81. S. Grossberg and R.W. Paine, "ANeural Model of Cortico-Cerebellar Interactions During Attentive Imitation and Predictive Learning of Sequential Handwriting Movements," Neural Networks 13.8-9 (October-November 2000): 999-1046. S. Grossberg and R.W. Paine, "ANeural Model of Cortico-Cerebellar Interactions During Attentive Imitation and Predictive Learning of Sequential Handwriting Movements," Neural Networks 13.8-9 (October-November 2000): 999-1046.

82. 82. Voogd and Glickstein, "Anatomy of the Cerebellum"; Eccles, Ito, and Szentagothai, Voogd and Glickstein, "Anatomy of the Cerebellum"; Eccles, Ito, and Szentagothai, Cerebellum as a Neuronal Machine Cerebellum as a Neuronal Machine; Ito, Cerebellum and Neural Control Cerebellum and Neural Control; R. Llinas, in Handbook of Physiology Handbook of Physiology, vol. 2, The Nervous System The Nervous System, ed. V.B. Brooks (Bethesda, Md.: American Physiological Society, 1981), pp. 831976.

83. 83. J. L. Raymond, S. G. Lisberger, and M. D. Mauk, "The Cerebellum: A Neuronal Learning Machine?" J. L. Raymond, S. G. Lisberger, and M. D. Mauk, "The Cerebellum: A Neuronal Learning Machine?" Science Science 272.5265 (May 24, 1996): 112631; J. J. Kim and R. F. Thompson, "Cerebellar Circuits and Synaptic Mechanisms Involved in Cla.s.sical Eyeblink Conditioning," 272.5265 (May 24, 1996): 112631; J. J. Kim and R. F. Thompson, "Cerebellar Circuits and Synaptic Mechanisms Involved in Cla.s.sical Eyeblink Conditioning," Trends in Neuroscience Trends in Neuroscience 20.4 (April 1997): 17781. 20.4 (April 1997): 17781.

84. 84. The simulation included 10,000 granule cells, 900 Golgi cells, 500 mossy fiber cells, 20 Purkinje cells, and 6 nucleus cells. The simulation included 10,000 granule cells, 900 Golgi cells, 500 mossy fiber cells, 20 Purkinje cells, and 6 nucleus cells.

85. 85. J. F. Medina et al., "Timing Mechanisms in the Cerebellum: Testing Predictions of a Large-Scale Computer Simulation," J. F. Medina et al., "Timing Mechanisms in the Cerebellum: Testing Predictions of a Large-Scale Computer Simulation," Journal of Neuroscience Journal of Neuroscience 20.14 (July 15, 2000): 551625; Dean Buonomano and Michael Mauk, "Neural Network Model of the Cerebellum: Temporal Discrimination and the Timing of Motor Reponses," 20.14 (July 15, 2000): 551625; Dean Buonomano and Michael Mauk, "Neural Network Model of the Cerebellum: Temporal Discrimination and the Timing of Motor Reponses," Neural Computation Neural Computation 6.1 (1994): 3855. 6.1 (1994): 3855.

86. 86. Medina et al., "Timing Mechanisms in the Cerebellum." Medina et al., "Timing Mechanisms in the Cerebellum."

87. 87. Carver Mead, Carver Mead, a.n.a.log VLSI and Neural Systems a.n.a.log VLSI and Neural Systems (Boston: Addison-Wesley Longman, 1989). (Boston: Addison-Wesley Longman, 1989).

88. 88. Lloyd Watts, "Visualizing Complexity in the Brain," in Lloyd Watts, "Visualizing Complexity in the Brain," in Computational Intelligence: The Experts Speak Computational Intelligence: The Experts Speak, D. Fogel and C. Robinson, eds. (Hoboken, N.J.: IEEE Press/Wiley, 2003), pp. 4556, http://www.lloydwatts.com/wcci.pdf.

89. 89. Ibid. Ibid.

90. 90. See http://www.lloydwatts.com/neuroscience.shtml. NanoComputer Dream Team, "The Law of Accelerating Returns, Part II," http://nanocomputer.org/index.cfm?content=90&Menu=19. See http://www.lloydwatts.com/neuroscience.shtml. NanoComputer Dream Team, "The Law of Accelerating Returns, Part II," http://nanocomputer.org/index.cfm?content=90&Menu=19.

91. 91. See http://info.med.yale.edu/bbs/faculty/she_go.html. See http://info.med.yale.edu/bbs/faculty/she_go.html.

92. 92. Gordon M. Shepherd, ed., Gordon M. Shepherd, ed., The Synaptic Organization of the Brain The Synaptic Organization of the Brain, 4th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. vi.

93. 93. E.Young, "Cochlear Nucleus," in ibid., pp. 12158. E.Young, "Cochlear Nucleus," in ibid., pp. 12158.

94. 94. Tom Yin, "Neural Mechanisms of Encoding Binaural Localization Cues in the Auditory Brainstem," in D. Oertel, R. Fay, and A. Popper, eds., Tom Yin, "Neural Mechanisms of Encoding Binaural Localization Cues in the Auditory Brainstem," in D. Oertel, R. Fay, and A. Popper, eds., Integrative Functions in the Mammalian Auditory Pathway Integrative Functions in the Mammalian Auditory Pathway (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2002), pp. 99159. (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2002), pp. 99159.

95. 95. John Ca.s.seday, Thane Premouw, and Ellen Covey, "The Inferior Colliculus: A Hub for the Central Auditory System," in Oertel, Fay, and Popper, John Ca.s.seday, Thane Premouw, and Ellen Covey, "The Inferior Colliculus: A Hub for the Central Auditory System," in Oertel, Fay, and Popper, Integrative Functions in the Mammalian Auditory Pathway Integrative Functions in the Mammalian Auditory Pathway, pp. 238318.

96. 96. Diagram by Lloyd Watts, http://www.lloydwatts.com/neuroscience.shtml, adapted from E.Young, "Cochlear Nucleus" in G. Shepherd, ed., Diagram by Lloyd Watts, http://www.lloydwatts.com/neuroscience.shtml, adapted from E.Young, "Cochlear Nucleus" in G. Shepherd, ed., The Synaptic Organization of the Brain The Synaptic Organization of the Brain, 4th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003 [first published 1998]), pp. 12158; D. Oertel in D. Oertel, R. Fay, and A. Popper, eds., Integrative Functions in the Mammalian Auditory Pathway Integrative Functions in the Mammalian Auditory Pathway (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2002), pp. 15; John Ca.s.seday, T. Fremouw, and E. Covey, "Inferior Colliculus" in ibid.; J. LeDoux, (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2002), pp. 15; John Ca.s.seday, T. Fremouw, and E. Covey, "Inferior Colliculus" in ibid.; J. LeDoux, The Emotional Brain The Emotional Brain (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997); J. Rauschecker and B. Tian, "Mechanisms and Streams for Processing of 'What' and 'Where' in Auditory Cortex," (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997); J. Rauschecker and B. Tian, "Mechanisms and Streams for Processing of 'What' and 'Where' in Auditory Cortex," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97.22: 1180011806. 97.22: 1180011806.

Brain regions modeled: Cochlea: Sense organ of hearing. Thirty thousand fibers convert motion of the stapes into spectrotemporal representations of sound.MC: Multipolar cells. Measure spectral energy.GBC: Globular bushy cells. Relay spikes from the auditory nerve to the lateral superior olivary complex (includes LSO and MSO). Encoding of timing and amplitude of signals for binaural comparison of level.SBC: Spherical bushy cells. Provide temporal sharpening of time of arrival, as a preprocessor for interaural time-difference calculation (difference in time of arrival between the two ears, used to tell where a sound is coming from).OC: Octopus cells. Detection of transients.DCN: Dorsal cochlear nucleus. Detection of spectral edges and calibrating for noise levels.VNTB: Ventral nucleus of the trapezoid body. Feedback signals to modulate outer hair-cell function in the cochlea.VNLL, PON: Ventral nucleus of the lateral lemniscus; peri-olivary nuclei: processing transients from the 0C.MSO: Medial superior olive. Computing interaural time difference.LSO: Lateral superior olive. Also involved in computing interaural level difference.ICC: Central nucleus of the inferior colliculus. The site of major integration of multiple representations of sound.ICx: Exterior nucleus of the inferior colliculus. Further refinement of sound localization.SC: Superior colliculus. Location of auditory/visual merging.MGB: Medial geniculate body. The auditory portion of the thalamus.LS: Limbic system. Comprising many structures a.s.sociated with emotion, memory, territory, et cetera.AC: Auditory cortex.

97. 97. M. S. Humayun et al., "Human Neural Retinal Transplantation," M. S. Humayun et al., "Human Neural Retinal Transplantation," Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 41.10 (September 2000): 31003106. 41.10 (September 2000): 31003106.

98. 98. Information Science and Technology Colloquium Series, May 23, 2001, http://isandtcolloq.gsfc.nasa.gov/spring2001/speakers/poggio.html. Information Science and Technology Colloquium Series, May 23, 2001, http://isandtcolloq.gsfc.nasa.gov/spring2001/speakers/poggio.html.

99. 99. Kah-Kay Sung and Tomaso Poggio, "Example-Based Learning for View-Based Human Face Detection," Kah-Kay Sung and Tomaso Poggio, "Example-Based Learning for View-Based Human Face Detection," IEEE Transactions on Pattern a.n.a.lysis and Machine Intelligence IEEE Transactions on Pattern a.n.a.lysis and Machine Intelligence 20.1 (1998): 3951, http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=275345&dl= ACM&coll=GUIDE. 20.1 (1998): 3951, http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=275345&dl= ACM&coll=GUIDE.

100. 100. Maximilian Riesenhuber and Tomaso Poggio, "A Note on Object Cla.s.s Representation and Categorical Perception," Center for Biological and Computational Learning, MIT, AI Memo 1679 (1999), ftp://publications.ai.mit.edu/ai-publications/pdf/AIM-1679.pdf. Maximilian Riesenhuber and Tomaso Poggio, "A Note on Object Cla.s.s Representation and Categorical Perception," Center for Biological and Computational Learning, MIT, AI Memo 1679 (1999), ftp://publications.ai.mit.edu/ai-publications/pdf/AIM-1679.pdf.

101. 101. K. Tanaka, "Inferoternporal Cortex and Object Vision," K. Tanaka, "Inferoternporal Cortex and Object Vision," Annual Review of Neuroscience Annual Review of Neuroscience 19 (1996): 109-39; Anuj Mohan, "Object Detection in Images by Components," Center for Biological and Computational Learning, MIT, AI Memo 1664 (1999), http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cache/papers/cs/12185/ftp:zSzzSzpublications.ai.mit.eduzSzai-publicationszSz15001999zSzAIM-1664.pdf/mohan99object.pdf; Anuj Mohan, Constantine Papageorgiou, and Tomaso Poggio, "Example-Based Object Detection in Images by Components," 19 (1996): 109-39; Anuj Mohan, "Object Detection in Images by Components," Center for Biological and Computational Learning, MIT, AI Memo 1664 (1999), http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cache/papers/cs/12185/ftp:zSzzSzpublications.ai.mit.eduzSzai-publicationszSz15001999zSzAIM-1664.pdf/mohan99object.pdf; Anuj Mohan, Constantine Papageorgiou, and Tomaso Poggio, "Example-Based Object Detection in Images by Components," IEEE Transactions on Pattern a.n.a.lysis and Machine Intelligence IEEE Transactions on Pattern a.n.a.lysis and Machine Intelligence 23.4 (April 2001), http://cbcl.mit.edu/projects/cbd/publications/ps/mohan-ieee.pdf; B. Heisele, T. Poggio, and M. Pontil, "Face Detection in Still Gray Images," Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, MIT, Technical Report AI Memo 1687 (2000). Also see Bernd Heisele, Thomas Serre, and Stanley Bilesch, "Component-Based Approach to Face Detection," Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and the Center for Biological and Computational Learning, MIT (2001), http://www.ai.mit.edulresearch/abstracts/abstracts2001/vision-applied-to-people/03heisele2.pdf. 23.4 (April 2001), http://cbcl.mit.edu/projects/cbd/publications/ps/mohan-ieee.pdf; B. Heisele, T. Poggio, and M. Pontil, "Face Detection in Still Gray Images," Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, MIT, Technical Report AI Memo 1687 (2000). Also see Bernd Heisele, Thomas Serre, and Stanley Bilesch, "Component-Based Approach to Face Detection," Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and the Center for Biological and Computational Learning, MIT (2001), http://www.ai.mit.edulresearch/abstracts/abstracts2001/vision-applied-to-people/03heisele2.pdf.

102. 102. D.Van Essen and J. Gallant, "Neural Mechanisms of Form and Motion Processing in the Primate Visual System," D.Van Essen and J. Gallant, "Neural Mechanisms of Form and Motion Processing in the Primate Visual System," Neuron Neuron 13.1 (July 1994): 110. 13.1 (July 1994): 110.

103. 103. s.h.i.+mon Ullman, s.h.i.+mon Ullman, High-Level Vision: Object Recognition and Visual Cognition High-Level Vision: Object Recognition and Visual Cognition (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: MIT Press, 1996); D. Mumford, "On the Computational Architecture of the Neocortex. II. The Role of Corticocortical Loops," (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: MIT Press, 1996); D. Mumford, "On the Computational Architecture of the Neocortex. II. The Role of Corticocortical Loops," Biological Cybernetics Biological Cybernetics 66.3 (1992): 24151; R. Rao and D. Ballard, "Dynamic Model of Visual Recognition Predicts Neural Response Properties in the Visual Cortex," 66.3 (1992): 24151; R. Rao and D. Ballard, "Dynamic Model of Visual Recognition Predicts Neural Response Properties in the Visual Cortex," Neural Computation Neural Computation 9.4 (May 15, 1997): 72163. 9.4 (May 15, 1997): 72163.

104. 104. B. Roska and F.Werblin, "Vertical Interactions Across Ten Parallel, Stacked Representations in the Mammalian Retina," B. Roska and F.Werblin, "Vertical Interactions Across Ten Parallel, Stacked Representations in the Mammalian Retina," Nature Nature 410.6828 (March 29, 2001): 58387; University of California, Berkeley, news release, "Eye Strips Images of All but Bare Essentials Before Sending Visual Information to Brain, UC Berkeley Research Shows," March 28, 2001, www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/200l/03/28_wers1.html. 410.6828 (March 29, 2001): 58387; University of California, Berkeley, news release, "Eye Strips Images of All but Bare Essentials Before Sending Visual Information to Brain, UC Berkeley Research Shows," March 28, 2001, www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/200l/03/28_wers1.html.

105. 105. Hans Moravec and Scott Friedman have founded a robotics company called Seegrid based on Moravec's research. See www.Seegrid.com. Hans Moravec and Scott Friedman have founded a robotics company called Seegrid based on Moravec's research. See www.Seegrid.com.

106. 106. M. A. Mahowald and C. Mead, "The Silicon Retina," M. A. Mahowald and C. Mead, "The Silicon Retina," Scientific American Scientific American 264.5 (May 1991): 7682. 264.5 (May 1991): 7682.

107. 107. Specifically, a low-pa.s.s filter is applied to one receptor (such as a photoreceptor). This is multiplied by the signal of the neighboring receptor. If this is done in both directions and the results of each operation subtracted from zero, we get an output that reflects the direction of movement. Specifically, a low-pa.s.s filter is applied to one receptor (such as a photoreceptor). This is multiplied by the signal of the neighboring receptor. If this is done in both directions and the results of each operation subtracted from zero, we get an output that reflects the direction of movement.

108. 108. On Berger, see http://www.usc.edu/dept/engineering/CNE/faculty/Berger.html. On Berger, see http://www.usc.edu/dept/engineering/CNE/faculty/Berger.html.

109. 109. "The World's First Brain Prosthesis," "The World's First Brain Prosthesis," New Scientist New Scientist 177.2386 (March 15,2003): 4, http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99993488. 177.2386 (March 15,2003): 4, http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99993488.

110. 110. Charles Choi, "Brain-Mimicking Circuits to Run Navy Robot," UPI, June 7, 2004, http://www.upi.com/view.cfm?StoryID=20040606-103352-6086r. Charles Choi, "Brain-Mimicking Circuits to Run Navy Robot," UPI, June 7, 2004, http://www.upi.com/view.cfm?StoryID=20040606-103352-6086r.

111. 111. Giacomo Rizzolatti et al., "Functional Organization of Inferior Area 6 in the Macaque Monkey. II. Area F5 and the Control of Distal Movements," Giacomo Rizzolatti et al., "Functional Organization of Inferior Area 6 in the Macaque Monkey. II. Area F5 and the Control of Distal Movements," Experimental Brain Research Experimental Brain Research 71.3 (1998): 491507. 71.3 (1998): 491507.

112. 112. M. A. Arbib, "The Mirror System, Imitation, and the Evolution of Language," in Kerstin Dautenhahn and Chrystopher L. Nehaniv, eds., M. A. Arbib, "The Mirror System, Imitation, and the Evolution of Language," in Kerstin Dautenhahn and Chrystopher L. Nehaniv, eds., Imitation in Animals and Artifacts Imitation in Animals and Artifacts (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: MIT Press, 2002). (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: MIT Press, 2002).

113. 113. Marc D. Hauser, Noam Chomsky, and W. Tec.u.mseh Fitch, "The Faculty of language: What Is It, Who Has It, and How Did It Evolve?" Marc D. Hauser, Noam Chomsky, and W. Tec.u.mseh Fitch, "The Faculty of language: What Is It, Who Has It, and How Did It Evolve?" Science Science 298 (November 2002): 156979, www.wjh.harvard.edu/~mnkylab/publications/languagespeech/Hauser,Chomsky,Fitch.pdf. 298 (November 2002): 156979, www.wjh.harvard.edu/~mnkylab/publications/languagespeech/Hauser,Chomsky,Fitch.pdf.

114. 114. Daniel C. Dennett, Daniel C. Dennett, Freedom Evolves Freedom Evolves (New York: Viking, 2003). (New York: Viking, 2003).

115. 115. See Sandra Blakeslee, "Humanity? Maybe It's All in the Wiring," See Sandra Blakeslee, "Humanity? Maybe It's All in the Wiring," New York Times New York Times, December 11, 2003, http://www.nytimes.com/2003112/09/science/09BRAI.html?ex=1386306000&en=294f5e91dd262a1a&ei=5007&partner=USERLAND.

116. 116. Antonio R. Damasio, Antonio R. Damasio, Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain (New York: Putnam, 1994). (New York: Putnam, 1994).

117. 117. M. P. Maher et al., "Microstructures for Studies of Cultured Neural Networks," M. P. Maher et al., "Microstructures for Studies of Cultured Neural Networks," Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing 37.1 (January 1999): 11018; John Wright et al., "Towards a Functional MEMS Neurowell by Physiological Experimentation," 37.1 (January 1999): 11018; John Wright et al., "Towards a Functional MEMS Neurowell by Physiological Experimentation," Technical Digest Technical Digest, ASME, 1996 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, Atlanta, November 1996, DSC (Dynamic Systems and Control Division), vol. 59, pp. 33338.

118. 118. W. French Anderson, "Genetics and Human Malleability," W. French Anderson, "Genetics and Human Malleability," Hastings Center Report Hastings Center Report 23.20 (January/February 1990): 1. 23.20 (January/February 1990): 1.

119. 119. Ray Kurzweil, "A Wager on the Turing Test: Why I Think I Will Win," KurzweilAI.net, April 9, 2002, http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0374.html. Ray Kurzweil, "A Wager on the Turing Test: Why I Think I Will Win," KurzweilAI.net, April 9, 2002, http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0374.html.

120. 120. Robert A. Freitas Jr. proposes a future nanotechnology-based brain-uploading system that would effectively be instantaneous. According to Freitas (personal communication, January 2005), "An in vivo fiber network as proposed in http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/7.3.1.htm can handle 10 Robert A. Freitas Jr. proposes a future nanotechnology-based brain-uploading system that would effectively be instantaneous. According to Freitas (personal communication, January 2005), "An in vivo fiber network as proposed in http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/7.3.1.htm can handle 1018 bits/sec of data traffic, capacious enough for real-time brain-state monitoring. The fiber network has a 30 cm bits/sec of data traffic, capacious enough for real-time brain-state monitoring. The fiber network has a 30 cm3 volume and generates 46 watts waste heat, both small enough for safe installation in a 1400 cm volume and generates 46 watts waste heat, both small enough for safe installation in a 1400 cm3 25-watt human brain. Signals travel at most a few meters at nearly the speed of light, so transit time from signal origination at neuron sites inside the brain to the external computer system mediating the upload are ~0.00001 msec which is considerably less than the minimum ~5 msec neuron discharge cycle time. Neuron-monitoring chemical sensors located on average ~2 microns apart can capture relevant chemical events occurring within a ~5 msec time window, since this is the approximate diffusion time for, say, a small neuropeptide across a 2-micron distance (http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMII/Tables/3.4.jpg). Thus human brain state monitoring can probably be instantaneous, at least on the timescale of human neural response, in the sense of 'nothing of significance was missed.' " 25-watt human brain. Signals travel at most a few meters at nearly the speed of light, so transit time from signal origination at neuron sites inside the brain to the external computer system mediating the upload are ~0.00001 msec which is considerably less than the minimum ~5 msec neuron discharge cycle time. Neuron-monitoring chemical sensors located on average ~2 microns apart can capture relevant chemical events occurring within a ~5 msec time window, since this is the approximate diffusion time for, say, a small neuropeptide across a 2-micron distance (http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMII/Tables/3.4.jpg). Thus human brain state monitoring can probably be instantaneous, at least on the timescale of human neural response, in the sense of 'nothing of significance was missed.' "

121. 121. M. C. Diamond et al., "On the Brain of a Scientist: Albert Einstein," M. C. Diamond et al., "On the Brain of a Scientist: Albert Einstein," Experimental Neurology Experimental Neurology 88 (1985): 198204. 88 (1985): 198204.