1861_ The Civil War Awakening Part 7

Garfield's nomination and election to the presidency came about unexpectedly. After several candidates ended up in a deadlock at the 1880 Republican National Convention, delegates began stampeding toward the relatively obscure Ohioan. The party placed him at the head of its ticket ("I don't know whether I am glad or not," the somewhat dazed nominee said), and he went on to win by a slim plurality in November.

The new president's inaugural address, almost wholly forgotten today, is a remarkable doc.u.ment, a clarion call for the nation to fulfill its promises to the former slaves. Indeed, over the course of more than two centuries, no other chief executive has begun his term with such a bold, firm, specific statement on the dangerous subject of civil rights, to which Garfield devoted more than half his speech. The emanc.i.p.ation of the Negro, he said, was the most important event in the nation's history since the signing of the Const.i.tution: It has freed us from the perpetual danger of war and dissolution. It has added immensely to the moral and industrial forces of our people. It has liberated the master as well as the slave from a relation which wronged and enfeebled both. It has surrendered to their own guardians.h.i.+p the manhood of more than five million people, and has opened to each one of them a career of freedom and usefulness.

Yet, Garfield continued, this epochal transformation would not be complete until blacks were granted their full privileges as Americans: voting rights, educational parity, and equal access to economic opportunities. All of these, his listeners knew, had been largely abrogated four years earlier when the previous Republican administration decreed the abrupt end of Reconstruction.

"There can be no permanent disfranchised peasantry in the United States," Garfield now warned. "Freedom can never yield its fullness of blessings so long as the law or its administration places the smallest obstacle in the pathway of any virtuous citizen."

In the end, he offered a hopeful vision, in words eerily foreshadowing others that would be spoken, eighty-two years later, at the opposite end of the National Mall. Garfield said: Let our people find a new meaning in the divine oracle which declares that "a little child shall lead them," for our own little children will soon control the destinies of the Republic.My countrymen, we do not now differ in our judgment concerning the controversies of past generations, and fifty years hence our children will not be divided in their opinions concerning our controversies. They will surely bless their fathers and their fathers' G.o.d that the Union was preserved, that slavery was overthrown, and that both races were made equal before the law. We may hasten or we may r.e.t.a.r.d, but we can not prevent, the final reconciliation.

Garfield would continue espousing such views throughout his short presidency, notably in a speech at the Hampton Inst.i.tute on June 4, 1881.

But that occasion at Hampton, almost exactly twenty years after the first contrabands' liberation, would be his last public address. Less than a month later, as he walked through Was.h.i.+ngton's train station on his way to a summer holiday with his family, Garfield was shot by a mentally deranged man, Charles Guiteau. The president lingered throughout the summer in great physical pain-as much from the inept medical care he received as from the wounds themselves-before dying on September 19.

He was succeeded by Chester Arthur, who showed little of his predecessor's interest in achieving racial justice. James Garfield's inaugural prophecy would wait much longer than fifty years to be fulfilled.

Exhausted mentally and physically by his ordeal at Fort Sumter, Robert Anderson Robert Anderson was never able to file an official report on the bombardment and surrender. He was appointed brigadier general in May 1861 and briefly commanded Union forces in his native Kentucky, but for reasons of health was relieved from active duty that October. He died at Nice, France, in 1871. was never able to file an official report on the bombardment and surrender. He was appointed brigadier general in May 1861 and briefly commanded Union forces in his native Kentucky, but for reasons of health was relieved from active duty that October. He died at Nice, France, in 1871.

After being spurned by Jefferson Davis in his attempts to win a high post in the rebel government, Louis T. Wigfall Louis T. Wigfall joined the Confederate Congress and became Davis's fiercest political foe. In March 1865, he strongly opposed the Confederates' last-ditch attempt to stem the tide of defeat by conscripting blacks into military service. He fled to Texas in May of that year, hoping to continue the struggle by leading Southern troops across the Rio Grande into Mexico. joined the Confederate Congress and became Davis's fiercest political foe. In March 1865, he strongly opposed the Confederates' last-ditch attempt to stem the tide of defeat by conscripting blacks into military service. He fled to Texas in May of that year, hoping to continue the struggle by leading Southern troops across the Rio Grande into Mexico.

When this plan failed to materialize, Wigfall left for England, where he spent the next five years attempting to restart the war by first provoking hostilities between the United States and Great Britain. He finally returned to Texas and died of apoplexy in 1874.8 *

The dead at First Bull Run included Noah Farnham, Elmer Ellsworth's successor as commander of the New York Fire Zouaves. New York Fire Zouaves. Already sick with typhoid, Farnham was wounded by a Confederate bullet and died several days later. After the battle, the Zouaves were scapegoated in the press for the Union defeat and ridiculed as cowards; the flashy uniforms of the firemen soldiers became (and for some historians, remain) symbols of the early pride and folly of the Northern side. A few weeks after the battle, when the Zouaves' regimental flags-the same ones they had paraded so proudly down Broadway that spring-were found abandoned on a trash heap in Alexandria, it was the unit's final humiliation. By autumn, more than half the men had deserted, and a few months later, the regiment officially disbanded. Already sick with typhoid, Farnham was wounded by a Confederate bullet and died several days later. After the battle, the Zouaves were scapegoated in the press for the Union defeat and ridiculed as cowards; the flashy uniforms of the firemen soldiers became (and for some historians, remain) symbols of the early pride and folly of the Northern side. A few weeks after the battle, when the Zouaves' regimental flags-the same ones they had paraded so proudly down Broadway that spring-were found abandoned on a trash heap in Alexandria, it was the unit's final humiliation. By autumn, more than half the men had deserted, and a few months later, the regiment officially disbanded.

The following year, an attempt was made to reconst.i.tute it under the command of a new colonel, Henry O'Brien. Not long after O'Brien began enlisting fresh Zouave recruits from among the fire b'hoys, the New York draft riots broke out, and he was among those murdered by the mob, tortured and hanged from a lamppost. Ellsworth's unlucky regiment was never resurrected again.

In September 1861, Jessie Benton Fremont Jessie Benton Fremont traveled alone by train from St. Louis to Was.h.i.+ngton to meet with President Lincoln. Ten days earlier, her husband, as the Union military commander in Missouri, had issued an edict summarily liberating all slaves in the state belonging to masters who aided the rebel cause. When news reached the president, he had immediately asked General Fremont to rescind the order. traveled alone by train from St. Louis to Was.h.i.+ngton to meet with President Lincoln. Ten days earlier, her husband, as the Union military commander in Missouri, had issued an edict summarily liberating all slaves in the state belonging to masters who aided the rebel cause. When news reached the president, he had immediately asked General Fremont to rescind the order.

Mrs. Fremont, hoping she could stay Lincoln's hand, went immediately to the White House. She found the president adamant in his position; he annoyed her still further when he said condescendingly, "You are quite a female politician." Lincoln told John Hay afterward that Mrs. Fremont had pressed him so hard that it was all he could do to avoid having an open quarrel with her.

(Mrs. Fremont, hearing of this many years later, wrote: "Strange, isn't it, that when a man expresses a conviction fearlessly, he is reported as having made a trenchant and forceful statement, but when a woman speaks thus earnestly, she is reported as a lady who has lost her temper.") His emanc.i.p.ation order revoked, John C. Fremont John C. Fremont's career in public life abruptly ended soon after, but Jessie Fremont was just beginning a prolific and successful career of her own as a writer. Her first work, an account of the early months of the Civil War in Missouri, appeared in 1863. It included a pa.s.sage in which Mrs. Fremont said she hoped readers would not think it "unwomanly" of her to publish a book, but, she added, "the restraints of ordinary times do not apply now."

During the financial crisis of the 1870s, the Fremonts lost what remained of their once vast fortune. Throughout the next two decades, as they struggled on the edge of poverty, Jessie kept them afloat with the income from her many books and magazine articles. After John's death in 1891, newspapers ran articles about the Great Pathfinder's widow, now living in dest.i.tution.

Embarra.s.sed, the California legislature voted her a pension, and some Los Angeles women raised money to build a house for her in their city. Jessie Fremont died there on December 27, 1902, her death mourned as the pa.s.sing of a vanished West.9 *

The house and gardens at Black Point Black Point were seized by the federal government during the Civil War and demolished to build earthworks and an artillery battery. The Fremonts, still on the East Coast, were not informed, and Jessie learned only when a Union officer she met at a party happened to mention it in casual conversation. ("Your boys' room was so pretty I hated to put soldiers in it," he said, "still more to tear down the walls, where you had pasted pictures of s.h.i.+ps and horses and written verses.") Throughout the rest of her life she tried unsuccessfully to recover the property, which became part of Fort Mason. For more than a century, no trace of her gardens was thought to survive, but in 2010, horticultural experts identified a rosebush that is believed to date from the Fremonts' occupancy. were seized by the federal government during the Civil War and demolished to build earthworks and an artillery battery. The Fremonts, still on the East Coast, were not informed, and Jessie learned only when a Union officer she met at a party happened to mention it in casual conversation. ("Your boys' room was so pretty I hated to put soldiers in it," he said, "still more to tear down the walls, where you had pasted pictures of s.h.i.+ps and horses and written verses.") Throughout the rest of her life she tried unsuccessfully to recover the property, which became part of Fort Mason. For more than a century, no trace of her gardens was thought to survive, but in 2010, horticultural experts identified a rosebush that is believed to date from the Fremonts' occupancy.10 *

The "Gray Eagle," Senator Edward D. Baker, Edward D. Baker, was killed at Ball's Bluff, Virginia, in October 1861, at the head of the First California Regiment. was killed at Ball's Bluff, Virginia, in October 1861, at the head of the First California Regiment.

Thomas Starr King continued working tirelessly for the Union cause in California. Beginning in the autumn of 1861, he became a leading organizer and fund-raiser for the United States Sanitary Commission, a government agency that organized citizen volunteers, especially women, in aiding wounded and sick Union soldiers. (It later inspired the founding of the American Red Cross.) King spent nearly all his time on the lecture circuit giving patriotic speeches and soliciting money for the commission; he is said to have been personally responsible for more than one and a half million dollars in contributions from the West Coast. Exhausted by these labors, he died of diphtheria in San Francisco on March 4, 1864, at the age of thirty-nine. continued working tirelessly for the Union cause in California. Beginning in the autumn of 1861, he became a leading organizer and fund-raiser for the United States Sanitary Commission, a government agency that organized citizen volunteers, especially women, in aiding wounded and sick Union soldiers. (It later inspired the founding of the American Red Cross.) King spent nearly all his time on the lecture circuit giving patriotic speeches and soliciting money for the commission; he is said to have been personally responsible for more than one and a half million dollars in contributions from the West Coast. Exhausted by these labors, he died of diphtheria in San Francisco on March 4, 1864, at the age of thirty-nine.

He and Jessie Fremont had never seen each other again. At her request, telegraphed from New York, a small bouquet of violets was placed on his chest at the funeral.

In 1931, the state of California placed a statue of King in the U.S. Capitol, thus honoring him as one of the two heroes permitted to be enshrined there by each of the fifty states. In 2009, his statue was removed and replaced with one of Ronald Reagan.11 *

Nathaniel Lyon was killed on August 10, 1861, at the Battle of Wilson's Creek in southwestern Missouri, the first Union general to die in the Civil War. was killed on August 10, 1861, at the Battle of Wilson's Creek in southwestern Missouri, the first Union general to die in the Civil War.

In 1862, Benjamin Butler, Benjamin Butler, then commanding Union forces in occupied New Orleans, became one of the first Union commanders to enlist Negro troops, which he did without authorization from the Lincoln administration. He fought (unsuccessfully) to secure equal treatment, including equal pay, for black soldiers, as well as to protect them from the Confederate policy of reenslaving them when captured as prisoners of war. When his colored troops fought with conspicuous gallantry in the a.s.sault on Richmond, he personally designed medals for the men, to be struck in silver at his own expense. These bore the Latin inscription then commanding Union forces in occupied New Orleans, became one of the first Union commanders to enlist Negro troops, which he did without authorization from the Lincoln administration. He fought (unsuccessfully) to secure equal treatment, including equal pay, for black soldiers, as well as to protect them from the Confederate policy of reenslaving them when captured as prisoners of war. When his colored troops fought with conspicuous gallantry in the a.s.sault on Richmond, he personally designed medals for the men, to be struck in silver at his own expense. These bore the Latin inscription Ferro iis libertas perveniet: Ferro iis libertas perveniet: "Their freedom will be won by the sword." "Their freedom will be won by the sword."

Butler's harshness in maintaining order and quas.h.i.+ng pro-Confederate sentiment in New Orleans-along with his unbending support for black civil rights-made him hated throughout most of the South. The general's enemies nicknamed him "Beast Butler" and "Spoons Butler," the latter because of a false rumor that he had stolen silver spoons from the house of a rebel commander.

After the war, Butler reentered politics as a radical Republican and was instrumental in pa.s.sing the federal Civil Rights Act of 1875, which mandated equal treatment for blacks in all public accommodations, including restaurants, hotels, and trains. The law was never enforced in the South, and the U.S. Supreme Court ruled it unconst.i.tutional in 1883. Its provisions did not become part of federal law again until the civil rights legislation of the 1960s.12 *

Over the course of the war, Hampton, Virginia, Hampton, Virginia, became home to thousands of black contrabands, who officially became freedmen and freedwomen when the Emanc.i.p.ation Proclamation took effect on New Year's Day, 1863. The liberated slaves built houses and makes.h.i.+ft shelters among the burned-out ruins of the old town, and turned the brick sh.e.l.l of the former courthouse into a school and church. The cla.s.ses taught by Northern abolitionists and missionaries under General Butler's auspices eventually evolved into Hampton University, one of the leading historically black inst.i.tutions in the country. became home to thousands of black contrabands, who officially became freedmen and freedwomen when the Emanc.i.p.ation Proclamation took effect on New Year's Day, 1863. The liberated slaves built houses and makes.h.i.+ft shelters among the burned-out ruins of the old town, and turned the brick sh.e.l.l of the former courthouse into a school and church. The cla.s.ses taught by Northern abolitionists and missionaries under General Butler's auspices eventually evolved into Hampton University, one of the leading historically black inst.i.tutions in the country.13 *

Charles King Mallory remained in Confederate service until 1865. His eldest son, an eighteen-year-old mids.h.i.+pman in the rebel navy, was killed in the war. Mallory died in 1875; an account of his funeral in a local newspaper described it thus: "The procession, nearly three-quarters of a mile long, proceeded to the old family burying ground...eight miles from Hampton. The fact that a very large number of the colored citizens of Hampton and the county walked the entire distance shows how much the deceased was loved and respected by all cla.s.ses." The site of Colonel Mallory's house, long since demolished, is part of the Hampton University campus. remained in Confederate service until 1865. His eldest son, an eighteen-year-old mids.h.i.+pman in the rebel navy, was killed in the war. Mallory died in 1875; an account of his funeral in a local newspaper described it thus: "The procession, nearly three-quarters of a mile long, proceeded to the old family burying ground...eight miles from Hampton. The fact that a very large number of the colored citizens of Hampton and the county walked the entire distance shows how much the deceased was loved and respected by all cla.s.ses." The site of Colonel Mallory's house, long since demolished, is part of the Hampton University campus.14 *

At the end of the war, Mary Chesnut, Mary Chesnut, a refugee from her plantation and from her family's ruined fortunes, greeted the demise of slavery with an emotion she described in her diary as "an unholy joy." a refugee from her plantation and from her family's ruined fortunes, greeted the demise of slavery with an emotion she described in her diary as "an unholy joy."15 *

After serving almost continuously as the site of a military base for more than four hundred years, Fortress Monroe Fortress Monroe is slated to be decommissioned in September 2011. As of this writing, its future is uncertain. The governor of Virginia has endorsed a "mixed-use" development of residential and commercial s.p.a.ce combined with "historic preservation." Some Hampton locals, led by African-Americans, including descendants of the contrabands, are calling on the National Park Service to acquire the site. is slated to be decommissioned in September 2011. As of this writing, its future is uncertain. The governor of Virginia has endorsed a "mixed-use" development of residential and commercial s.p.a.ce combined with "historic preservation." Some Hampton locals, led by African-Americans, including descendants of the contrabands, are calling on the National Park Service to acquire the site.16 At the end of the Civil War, Jefferson Davis Jefferson Davis was imprisoned in Fortress Monroe for two years before being released on bail; he was never brought to trial. was imprisoned in Fortress Monroe for two years before being released on bail; he was never brought to trial.

Today, the fort contains a Jefferson Davis Memorial Park. There is no memorial or monument to Benjamin Butler or the contrabands.

The three original contrabands all remained in the Hampton Roads area after the war. Frank Baker Frank Baker and and James Townsend James Townsend raised families and worked as day laborers; neither ever learned to read or write. raised families and worked as day laborers; neither ever learned to read or write.

Shepard Mallory was the last survivor among the significant characters in this book. He learned to read and write and became a prominent figure in Hampton's black community. The former contraband apparently mended fences with his former master, who attended one of his weddings. (Mallory would marry at least four times; his last two wives were approximately forty and thirty years younger, respectively, than he was.) In the early twentieth century he was working as a carpenter and school janitor and living in the house at 260 Lincoln Street that he owned, free and clear, for the last four decades of his life. Shepard Mallory last appears in the census records in 1920, aged about eighty and still working, self-employed. was the last survivor among the significant characters in this book. He learned to read and write and became a prominent figure in Hampton's black community. The former contraband apparently mended fences with his former master, who attended one of his weddings. (Mallory would marry at least four times; his last two wives were approximately forty and thirty years younger, respectively, than he was.) In the early twentieth century he was working as a carpenter and school janitor and living in the house at 260 Lincoln Street that he owned, free and clear, for the last four decades of his life. Shepard Mallory last appears in the census records in 1920, aged about eighty and still working, self-employed.17

The American Declaration of Independence Ill.u.s.trated, 1861 (photo credit bm.1)

NOTES.

Prologue: A Banner at Daybreak 1. 1. Abner Doubleday, Abner Doubleday, Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie (New York, 1876), pp. 637; Samuel W. Crawford, (New York, 1876), pp. 637; Samuel W. Crawford, The History of the Fall of Fort Sumter, and the Genesis of the Civil War The History of the Fall of Fort Sumter, and the Genesis of the Civil War (New York, 1887), pp. 104112; J. G. Foster to J. H. B. Latrobe, Jan. 10, 1861, in Frank F. White, Jr., ed., "The Evacuation of Fort Moultrie in 1860," (New York, 1887), pp. 104112; J. G. Foster to J. H. B. Latrobe, Jan. 10, 1861, in Frank F. White, Jr., ed., "The Evacuation of Fort Moultrie in 1860," The South Carolina Historical Magazine The South Carolina Historical Magazine, vol. 53, no. 1 (Jan. 1952), pp. 15; John Thompson to "Dear Father," Feb. 14, 1861, in "A Union Soldier at Fort Sumter, 18601861," The South Carolina Historical Magazine The South Carolina Historical Magazine, vol. 67, no. 2 (Apr. 1966), pp. 99104; J. G. Foster to R. E. De Russy, Dec. 27, 1860, in Official Records [of the War of the Rebellion], Official Records [of the War of the Rebellion], series I (hereafter series I (hereafter OR OR I), vol. 1, pp. 1089; James P. Jones, ed., "Charleston Harbor, 18601861: A Memoir from the Union Garrison," I), vol. 1, pp. 1089; James P. Jones, ed., "Charleston Harbor, 18601861: A Memoir from the Union Garrison," The South Carolina Historical Magazine The South Carolina Historical Magazine, vol. 62, no. 3 (July 1961), pp. 14850; Frank Leslie's Ill.u.s.trated Newspaper Frank Leslie's Ill.u.s.trated Newspaper, Jan. 5 and Jan. 19, 1861. There are a few discrepancies among firsthand accounts of the departure from Fort Moultrie. Original texts can be found on the website for this book, www.1861book.com.2. Abner Doubleday, "From Moultrie to Sumter," in Abner Doubleday, "From Moultrie to Sumter," in Battles and Leaders of the Civil War Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (New York, 1887), vol. 1, p. 41; Doubleday, (New York, 1887), vol. 1, p. 41; Doubleday, Reminiscences, Reminiscences, chap. 1. chap. 1.3. Dictionary of American Biography Dictionary of American Biography (hereafter (hereafter DAB DAB) (New York, 1944), vol. 1, 274; George W. Cullum, Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, N.Y. Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, N.Y. (Boston, 1891), vol. 1, pp. 34752. (Boston, 1891), vol. 1, pp. 34752.4. Fitz John Porter to Cooper, Nov. 11, 1860, Fitz John Porter to Cooper, Nov. 11, 1860, OR OR I, vol. 1, p. 71. I, vol. 1, p. 71.5. Terry W. Lips...o...b.. Terry W. Lips...o...b.. South Carolina Revolutionary War Battles: The Carolina Low Country, April 1775June 1776, and the Battle of Fort Moultrie South Carolina Revolutionary War Battles: The Carolina Low Country, April 1775June 1776, and the Battle of Fort Moultrie (Columbia, S.C., 1994); Edwin C. Bearss, (Columbia, S.C., 1994); Edwin C. Bearss, The Battle of Sullivan's Island and the Capture of Fort Moultrie: A Doc.u.mented Narrative and Troop Movement Maps, Fort Sumter National Monument, South Carolina The Battle of Sullivan's Island and the Capture of Fort Moultrie: A Doc.u.mented Narrative and Troop Movement Maps, Fort Sumter National Monument, South Carolina (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C., National Park Service, 1968). (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C., National Park Service, 1968).6. Doubleday, "From Moultrie to Sumter," pp. 4041. Doubleday, "From Moultrie to Sumter," pp. 4041.7. James Chester, "Inside Sumter in '61," in James Chester, "Inside Sumter in '61," in Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, vol. 1, pp. 5051. vol. 1, pp. 5051.8. David Detzer, David Detzer, Allegiance: Fort Sumter, Charleston, and the Beginning of the Civil War Allegiance: Fort Sumter, Charleston, and the Beginning of the Civil War (New York, 2001), p. 53. (New York, 2001), p. 53.9. Charles H. Lesser, Charles H. Lesser, Relic of the Lost Cause: The Story of South Carolina's Ordinance of Secession, Relic of the Lost Cause: The Story of South Carolina's Ordinance of Secession, 2nd ed. (Columbia, S.C., 1996), pp. 23. 2nd ed. (Columbia, S.C., 1996), pp. 23.10. W. A. Swanberg, W. A. Swanberg, First Blood: The Story of Fort Sumter First Blood: The Story of Fort Sumter (New York, 1957), p.25. (New York, 1957), p.25.11. Roy Meredith, Roy Meredith, Storm over Sumter: The Opening Engagement of the Civil War Storm over Sumter: The Opening Engagement of the Civil War (New York, 1957), p. 37. (New York, 1957), p. 37.12. Anderson to Cooper, Dec. 1, 1860, Anderson to Cooper, Dec. 1, 1860, OR OR I, vol. 1, p. 81; Detzer, I, vol. 1, p. 81; Detzer, Allegiance, Allegiance, p.63. p.63.13. Anderson to Cooper, Nov. 28, 1860, Anderson to Cooper, Nov. 28, 1860, OR OR I, vol. 1, pp. 7879. I, vol. 1, pp. 7879.14. Cooper to Anderson, Dec. 14, 1860, Cooper to Anderson, Dec. 14, 1860, OR OR I, vol. 1, pp. 9293. I, vol. 1, pp. 9293.15. Floyd to Anderson, Dec. 19, 1860, Floyd to Anderson, Dec. 19, 1860, OR OR I, vol. 1, p. 98. I, vol. 1, p. 98.16. Doubleday, Doubleday, Reminiscences, Reminiscences, ch. 3; Doubleday, "From Moultrie to Sumter," p.41; Crawford, ch. 3; Doubleday, "From Moultrie to Sumter," p.41; Crawford, History, History, p. 66. p. 66.17. Doubleday, "From Moultrie to Sumter," p. 43. Doubleday, "From Moultrie to Sumter," p. 43.18. Detzer, Detzer, Allegiance, Allegiance, pp. 7172. pp. 7172.19. Doubleday, "From Moultrie to Sumter," p. 41. Doubleday, "From Moultrie to Sumter," p. 41.20. Detzer, Detzer, Allegiance, Allegiance, pp. 2324. pp. 2324.21. DAB, DAB, I, p. 274; Cullum, I, p. 274; Cullum, Biographical Register, Biographical Register, pp. 34752. pp. 34752.22. Doubleday, "From Moultrie to Sumter," pp. 4243. Doubleday, "From Moultrie to Sumter," pp. 4243.23. Crawford, Crawford, History, History, p. 95. p. 95.24. Ibid., pp. 5051. Ibid., pp. 5051.25. Ibid., p. 55. Ibid., p. 55.26. Doubleday, Doubleday, Reminiscences, Reminiscences, p. 56. p. 56.27. Floyd to Anderson, Dec. 21, 1860, Floyd to Anderson, Dec. 21, 1860, OR OR I, vol. 1, p. 103. I, vol. 1, p. 103.28. DAB, DAB, Cullum, Cullum, Biographical Register, Biographical Register, pp. 34752; Eba Anderson Lawton, ed., pp. 34752; Eba Anderson Lawton, ed., An Artillery Officer in the Mexican War, 18467: Letters of Robert Anderson, An Artillery Officer in the Mexican War, 18467: Letters of Robert Anderson, Captain 3rd Artillery, U.S.A. Captain 3rd Artillery, U.S.A. (New York and London, 1911), pp. 31113. (New York and London, 1911), pp. 31113.29. Doubleday, Doubleday, Reminiscences, Reminiscences, pp. 6061. pp. 6061.30. Crawford, Crawford, History, History, pp. 10203. pp. 10203.31. Doubleday, Doubleday, Reminiscences, Reminiscences, pp. 6167; Crawford, pp. 6167; Crawford, History, History, pp. 10307. pp. 10307.32. Charleston Mercury, Charleston Mercury, Dec. 28, 1860. Dec. 28, 1860.33. The family correspondence of Colonel William Hemsley Emory is now part of the James Wood Poplar Grove Papers in the Maryland State Archives. The family correspondence of Colonel William Hemsley Emory is now part of the James Wood Poplar Grove Papers in the Maryland State Archives.34. David Brion Davis, David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (New York, 2006), p. 10. (New York, 2006), p. 10.35. Charleston Courier, Charleston Courier, Dec. 28, 1860; Dec. 28, 1860; Baltimore Sun, Baltimore Sun, Dec. 28, 1860. Dec. 28, 1860.36. Swanberg, Swanberg, First Blood, First Blood, p. 145. p. 145.37. This figure includes supplements that were published in the twentieth century. The original series totals 138,000 pages. This figure includes supplements that were published in the twentieth century. The original series totals 138,000 pages.38. For an illuminating discussion of Lincoln as both progressive and conservative, see Richard Striner, For an illuminating discussion of Lincoln as both progressive and conservative, see Richard Striner, Lincoln's Way: How Six Great Presidents Created American Power Lincoln's Way: How Six Great Presidents Created American Power (Lanham, Md., 2010). (Lanham, Md., 2010).39. Guenter, Guenter, The American Flag, 17771924: Cultural s.h.i.+fts from Creation to Codification The American Flag, 17771924: Cultural s.h.i.+fts from Creation to Codification (Rutherford, N.J., 1990), pp. 5787; Michael Corcoran, (Rutherford, N.J., 1990), pp. 5787; Michael Corcoran, For Which It Stands: An Anecdotal Biography of the American Flag For Which It Stands: An Anecdotal Biography of the American Flag (New York, 2002), pp. 78ff. Even though flags were now printed rather than individually st.i.tched, that spring the cost of red, white, and blue bunting increased from $4.75 to $28 per yard. (New York, 2002), pp. 78ff. Even though flags were now printed rather than individually st.i.tched, that spring the cost of red, white, and blue bunting increased from $4.75 to $28 per yard.40. Congress created the Medal of Honor in 1862. Of the more than 1,500 that would be awarded for acts of heroism in the Civil War, more than half involved a rescue of the American colors, or a capture of the enemy's. Congress created the Medal of Honor in 1862. Of the more than 1,500 that would be awarded for acts of heroism in the Civil War, more than half involved a rescue of the American colors, or a capture of the enemy's.

Chapter One: Wide Awake.

1. 1. C. W. Clarence, C. W. Clarence, A Biographical Sketch of the Life of Ralph Farnham, of Acton, Maine, Now in the One Hundred and Fifth Year of His Age, and the Sole Survivor of the Glorious Battle of Bunker Hill A Biographical Sketch of the Life of Ralph Farnham, of Acton, Maine, Now in the One Hundred and Fifth Year of His Age, and the Sole Survivor of the Glorious Battle of Bunker Hill (Boston, 1860); (Boston, 1860); Daily National Intelligencer, Daily National Intelligencer, July 18, 1860; July 18, 1860; Boston Bee, Boston Bee, Oct. 9, 1860; Oct. 9, 1860; Boston Post, Boston Post, Oct. 9, 1860. Oct. 9, 1860.2. Quoted in James Elliot Cabot, Quoted in James Elliot Cabot, A Memoir of Ralph Waldo Emerson A Memoir of Ralph Waldo Emerson (Boston, 188788), vol. 1, p. 91. (Boston, 188788), vol. 1, p. 91.3. "The Kansas Question," "The Kansas Question," Putnam's Monthly Putnam's Monthly [ [Magazine of American Literature, Science and Art], vol. 6, no. 34 (Oct. 1855).4. Webster and Adams both quoted in George B. Forgie, Webster and Adams both quoted in George B. Forgie, Patricide in the House Divided: A Psychological Interpretation of Lincoln and His Age Patricide in the House Divided: A Psychological Interpretation of Lincoln and His Age (New York, 1979), pp. 6768. (New York, 1979), pp. 6768.5. "Procrustes, Junior," "Great Men, A Misfortune," "Procrustes, Junior," "Great Men, A Misfortune," Southern Literary Messenger, Southern Literary Messenger, April 1860, p. 308. April 1860, p. 308.6. Clarence, Clarence, A Biographical Sketch; A Biographical Sketch; Alan Taylor, Alan Taylor, Liberty Men and Great Proprietors: The Revolutionary Settlement on the Maine Frontier, 17651820 Liberty Men and Great Proprietors: The Revolutionary Settlement on the Maine Frontier, 17651820 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990). (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990).7. Ma.s.sachusetts Historical Society, Ambrotype Collection, photo 2.16. Ma.s.sachusetts Historical Society, Ambrotype Collection, photo 2.16.8. Masao Miyos.h.i.+, Masao Miyos.h.i.+, As We Saw Them: The First j.a.panese Emba.s.sy to the United States As We Saw Them: The First j.a.panese Emba.s.sy to the United States ( (1860) (Berkeley, 1979), pp. 1015; [Masayiko Kanesaboro Yanagawa], The First j.a.panese Mission to the United States The First j.a.panese Mission to the United States (Kobe, 1937), pp.4850,69. Since Dutch traders had been going to j.a.pan for centuries, a number of educated j.a.panese spoke that language. Communications with English speakers usually required two translators: one of them j.a.panese to Dutch, the other Dutch to English. (Kobe, 1937), pp.4850,69. Since Dutch traders had been going to j.a.pan for centuries, a number of educated j.a.panese spoke that language. Communications with English speakers usually required two translators: one of them j.a.panese to Dutch, the other Dutch to English.9. Robert Cellem, Robert Cellem, Visit of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales to the British North American Provinces and United States, in the Year 1860 Visit of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales to the British North American Provinces and United States, in the Year 1860 (Toronto, 1861), p. 372. When Ralph Farnham was told that the prince was about to arrive in Boston, he responded, "I don't want to see him." Finally, however, he grudgingly deigned to call on the royal personage, who had taken a suite on another floor in the same hotel. After a cordial exchange of pleasantries, the old revolutionary remarked slyly that in light of the enthusiastic reception given to George III's great-grandson, he was worried his countrymen might be turning royalists again. The prince chose to laugh this off. ( (Toronto, 1861), p. 372. When Ralph Farnham was told that the prince was about to arrive in Boston, he responded, "I don't want to see him." Finally, however, he grudgingly deigned to call on the royal personage, who had taken a suite on another floor in the same hotel. After a cordial exchange of pleasantries, the old revolutionary remarked slyly that in light of the enthusiastic reception given to George III's great-grandson, he was worried his countrymen might be turning royalists again. The prince chose to laugh this off. (Philadelphia Inquirer, Oct. 12, 1860; Oct. 12, 1860; New York Herald, New York Herald, Oct. 19, 1860.) Oct. 19, 1860.)10. Boston Daily Advertiser, Boston Daily Advertiser, Oct. 9, 1860. Oct. 9, 1860.11. New York Herald, New York Herald, Dec. 31, 1860. Dec. 31, 1860.12. Reinhard H. Luthin, Reinhard H. Luthin, The First Lincoln Campaign The First Lincoln Campaign (Gloucester, Ma.s.s., 1964), pp. 16970; Earl Schenck Miers, ed., (Gloucester, Ma.s.s., 1964), pp. 16970; Earl Schenck Miers, ed., Lincoln Day by Day: A Chronology, 18091865 Lincoln Day by Day: A Chronology, 18091865 (Was.h.i.+ngton, 1960), vol. 2, pp. 28284. No less a sage than William Cullen Bryant advised Lincoln: "Make no speeches, write no letters as a candidate, enter into no pledges, make no promises." Bryant to Lincoln, June 16, 1860, quoted in Gil Troy, (Was.h.i.+ngton, 1960), vol. 2, pp. 28284. No less a sage than William Cullen Bryant advised Lincoln: "Make no speeches, write no letters as a candidate, enter into no pledges, make no promises." Bryant to Lincoln, June 16, 1860, quoted in Gil Troy, See How They Ran: The Changing Role of the Presidential Candidate See How They Ran: The Changing Role of the Presidential Candidate (Cambridge, Ma.s.s., 1996), pp. 6162; Michael Burlingame, (Cambridge, Ma.s.s., 1996), pp. 6162; Michael Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life Abraham Lincoln: A Life (Baltimore, 2008), vol. 1, p. 656. (Baltimore, 2008), vol. 1, p. 656.13. Troy, Troy, See How They Ran, See How They Ran, pp. 6466; pp. 6466; The Ripley The Ripley [Ohio] [Ohio] Bee, Bee, Aug. 16, 1860; Aug. 16, 1860; Freedom's Champion Freedom's Champion [Atchison, Kansas], Sept. 1, 1860; Wayne C. Williams, [Atchison, Kansas], Sept. 1, 1860; Wayne C. Williams, A Rail Splitter for President A Rail Splitter for President (Denver, 1951), pp. 3637. (Denver, 1951), pp. 3637.14. Lincoln remained very disconcerted by the experience. "I was afraid of being caught and crushed in that crowd," he wrote afterward. "The American people remind me of a flock of sheep." Burlingame, Lincoln remained very disconcerted by the experience. "I was afraid of being caught and crushed in that crowd," he wrote afterward. "The American people remind me of a flock of sheep." Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln, vol.1, p. 651; Williams, vol.1, p. 651; Williams, A Rail Splitter, A Rail Splitter, pp. 109110; pp. 109110; New York Herald, New York Herald, Aug.14, 1860. Aug.14, 1860.15. Joshua Wolf Shenk, Joshua Wolf Shenk, Lincoln's Melancholy: How Depression Challenged a President and Fueled His Greatness Lincoln's Melancholy: How Depression Challenged a President and Fueled His Greatness (Boston, 2005), p. 3. (Boston, 2005), p. 3.16. Wayne C. Temple, "Lincoln's Fence Rails," Wayne C. Temple, "Lincoln's Fence Rails," Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society, Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society, vol. 47 (1954), pp. 2128; Mark A. Plummer, vol. 47 (1954), pp. 2128; Mark A. Plummer, Lincoln's Rail-Splitter: Governor Richard J. Oglesby Lincoln's Rail-Splitter: Governor Richard J. Oglesby (Urbana, Ill., 2001), pp. 4445. (Urbana, Ill., 2001), pp. 4445.17. Williams, Williams, A Rail Splitter, A Rail Splitter, p. 50. p. 50.18. Gary Kulik, "The Worm Fence" in Gary Kulik, "The Worm Fence" in Between Fences, Between Fences, ed. Gregory K. Dreicer (Princeton, N.J., 1996), pp. 2022; John Stilgoe, ed. Gregory K. Dreicer (Princeton, N.J., 1996), pp. 2022; John Stilgoe, Common Landscape of America, 1580 to 1845 Common Landscape of America, 1580 to 1845 (New Haven, 1982), pp. 32123. Interestingly, many friends and family members who had known Lincoln in his youth said he'd hated physical labor. "Abe was awful lazy," one farmer who'd employed him told an interviewer in 1865. John Hanks's own brother Charles said publicly during the 1860 campaign that "jumping and wrestling were his only accomplishments. His laziness was the source of many mortifications to me; for as I was an older boy than either Abe or John, I often had to do Abe's work at uncle's, when the family were sick...and Abe would be rollicking about the country neglecting them." (Burlingame, (New Haven, 1982), pp. 32123. Interestingly, many friends and family members who had known Lincoln in his youth said he'd hated physical labor. "Abe was awful lazy," one farmer who'd employed him told an interviewer in 1865. John Hanks's own brother Charles said publicly during the 1860 campaign that "jumping and wrestling were his only accomplishments. His laziness was the source of many mortifications to me; for as I was an older boy than either Abe or John, I often had to do Abe's work at uncle's, when the family were sick...and Abe would be rollicking about the country neglecting them." (Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln, vol. 1, pp. 77, 667.) vol. 1, pp. 77, 667.)19. Williams, Williams, A Rail Splitter, A Rail Splitter, pp. 15859; pp. 15859; New York Herald, New York Herald, Sept. 29, 1860. Sept. 29, 1860.20. Contrary to what some have a.s.sumed, the Democrats' split did not directly bring about Lincoln's victory. Even if the party, and the Const.i.tutional Unionists, for that matter, had united behind a single candidate, Lincoln would still have won enough electoral votes to give him the presidency. Contrary to what some have a.s.sumed, the Democrats' split did not directly bring about Lincoln's victory. Even if the party, and the Const.i.tutional Unionists, for that matter, had united behind a single candidate, Lincoln would still have won enough electoral votes to give him the presidency.21. Quoted in the Quoted in the Daily Ohio Statesman, Daily Ohio Statesman, Jan. 28, 1860. Jan. 28, 1860.22. Troy, Troy, See How They Ran, See How They Ran, p. 65. p. 65.23. Eric Foner, Eric Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York, 1995), pp. 21619; Burlingame, 2nd ed. (New York, 1995), pp. 21619; Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln, vol. 1, p. 669. vol. 1, p. 669.24. See, e.g., See, e.g., New-York Tribune, New-York Tribune, Oct. 28, 1860. Oct. 28, 1860.25. See Foner, See Foner, Free Soil, Free Soil, esp. chaps. 12. esp. chaps. 12.26. James M. Volo and Dorothy Denneen Volo, James M. Volo and Dorothy Denneen Volo, The Antebellum Period The Antebellum Period (Westport, Conn., 2004), p. 68. (Westport, Conn., 2004), p. 68.27. F. H. Sangborn and William Harris, eds., F. H. Sangborn and William Harris, eds., A. Bronson Alcott: His Life and Philosophy A. Bronson Alcott: His Life and Philosophy (Boston, 1893), vol. 1, pp. 14546; Geraldine Brooks, "Orpheus at the Plough," (Boston, 1893), vol. 1, pp. 14546; Geraldine Brooks, "Orpheus at the Plough," The New Yorker, The New Yorker, Jan. 10, 2005, p. 58. Jan. 10, 2005, p. 58.28. William Carlos Martyn, William Carlos Martyn, Wendell Phillips: The Agitator Wendell Phillips: The Agitator (Boston, 1890), p.149; (Boston, 1890), p.149; Boston City Directory for 1855 Boston City Directory for 1855 (Boston, 1855); (Boston, 1855); Boston City Directory for 1865 Boston City Directory for 1865 (Boston, 1865). (Boston, 1865).29. Oscar Sherwin, Oscar Sherwin, Apostle of Liberty: The Life and Times of Wendell Phillips Apostle of Liberty: The Life and Times of Wendell Phillips (New York, 1958), pp. 32333; Henry Mayer, (New York, 1958), pp. 32333; Henry Mayer, All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery (New York, 1998), pp. 44042. (New York, 1998), pp. 44042.30. Mayer, Mayer, All on Fire, All on Fire, pp. 44345; Ralph Korngold, pp. 44345; Ralph Korngold, Two Friends of Man: The Story of William Lloyd Garrison and Wendell Phillips and Their Relations.h.i.+p with Abraham Lincoln Two Friends of Man: The Story of William Lloyd Garrison and Wendell Phillips and Their Relations.h.i.+p with Abraham Lincoln (Boston, 1950), p. 249. (Boston, 1950), p. 249.31. Mayer, Mayer, All on Fire, All on Fire, p. 510; Korngold, p. 510; Korngold, Two Friends of Man, Two Friends of Man, pp. 26970. pp. 26970.32. Burlingame, Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln, vol. 1, p. 664; vol. 1, p. 664; San Antonio Ledger and Texan, San Antonio Ledger and Texan, July 28, 1860. July 28, 1860.33. Burlingame, Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln, vol. 1, p. 664. The newspaper's editors were perhaps unaware that Was.h.i.+ngton had died childless and that Lafayette's descendants all lived in France. vol. 1, p. 664. The newspaper's editors were perhaps unaware that Was.h.i.+ngton had died childless and that Lafayette's descendants all lived in France.34. Ibid. p. 665; Ibid. p. 665; New York Herald, New York Herald, Oct. 24, 1860. Oct. 24, 1860.35. New York Herald, New York Herald, Oct. 5, 1860. Oct. 5, 1860.36. Council Bluffs Council Bluffs [Iowa] [Iowa] Bugle, Bugle, Oct. 31, 1860. Oct. 31, 1860.37. New York Herald, New York Herald, July 12, 1860. July 12, 1860.38. Osborn H. Oldroyd, Osborn H. Oldroyd, Lincoln's Campaign: Or the Political Revolution of 1860 Lincoln's Campaign: Or the Political Revolution of 1860 (Chicago, 1896), pp. 10405; (Chicago, 1896), pp. 10405; New York Herald, New York Herald, Sept. 10 and 19, 1860; Sept. 10 and 19, 1860; The Mississippian The Mississippian [Jackson], Sept. 28, 1860; Jon Grinspan, "'Young Men for War': The Wide Awakes and Lincoln's 1860 Campaign," [Jackson], Sept. 28, 1860; Jon Grinspan, "'Young Men for War': The Wide Awakes and Lincoln's 1860 Campaign," Journal of American History, Journal of American History, vol. 96, no. 2 (Sept. 2009), pp. 35778. Grinspan's recent article is the only in-depth account of the Wide Awakes that has ever been published. vol. 96, no. 2 (Sept. 2009), pp. 35778. Grinspan's recent article is the only in-depth account of the Wide Awakes that has ever been published.One variation on the Hartford story had it that the five shop clerks were attacked en route to the hotel by a burly Democrat who tried to throw one of them to the ground. He was laid low by a swing of the young clerk's torch. (Frank Leslie's Ill.u.s.trated Weekly, Oct. 13, 1860.) Oct. 13, 1860.)39. New York Herald, New York Herald, Sept. 19 and 26, 1860. Sept. 19 and 26, 1860.40. Grinspan, "'Young Men for War'"; Ulysses S. Grant, Grinspan, "'Young Men for War'"; Ulysses S. Grant, Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant (New York, 1999), p. 114. (New York, 1999), p. 114.41. Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, Aug. 1, 1860; Grinspan, "'Young Men for War.'" One enlistee in Boston was the young Charles Francis Adams, Jr. Aug. 1, 1860; Grinspan, "'Young Men for War.'" One enlistee in Boston was the young Charles Francis Adams, Jr.42. Daily Cleveland Herald, Daily Cleveland Herald, Sept. 17, 1860; Sept. 17, 1860; New York Herald, New York Herald, Oct. 4, 1860. Oct. 4, 1860.43. New York Herald, New York Herald, Sept. 26, 1860. Sept. 26, 1860.44. Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, Sept. 10, 1860. Sept. 10, 1860.45. My account of the "Texas troubles" of 1860 is drawn largely from the only scholarly book on the subject, Donald E. Reynolds's carefully researched My account of the "Texas troubles" of 1860 is drawn largely from the only scholarly book on the subject, Donald E. Reynolds's carefully researched Texas Terror: The Slave Insurrection Panic of 1860 and the Secession of the Lower South Texas Terror: The Slave Insurrection Panic of 1860 and the Secession of the Lower South (Baton Rouge, 2007). It is difficult to estimate the number of lynchings, since most of the period sources are anecdotal, and some killings doubtless went unreported. The range I have given is from Reynolds's book. (Baton Rouge, 2007). It is difficult to estimate the number of lynchings, since most of the period sources are anecdotal, and some killings doubtless went unreported. The range I have given is from Reynolds's book.46. Georgia Chronicle, Georgia Chronicle, n.d., reprinted in the n.d., reprinted in the Daily Cleveland Herald, Daily Cleveland Herald, Oct. 23, 1860; Oct. 23, 1860; Semi-Weekly Mississippian Semi-Weekly Mississippian [Jackson], Oct. 16, 1860. [Jackson], Oct. 16, 1860.47. Grinspan, "'Young Men for War'"; Grinspan, "'Young Men for War'"; New York Herald, New York Herald, Nov. 5, 1860. Nov. 5, 1860.48. Grinspan, "'Young Men for War,'" thinks the real total was probably closer to 100,000, but notes that even this figure "would be the equivalent of about 1 million Wide Awakes in the current population of the United States." Grinspan, "'Young Men for War,'" thinks the real total was probably closer to 100,000, but notes that even this figure "would be the equivalent of about 1 million Wide Awakes in the current population of the United States."49. Ibid. Ibid.50. James Russell Lowell, "The Election in November," James Russell Lowell, "The Election in November," Atlantic Monthly, Atlantic Monthly, Oct. 1860. Oct. 1860.51. Bangor Daily Whig and Courier Bangor Daily Whig and Courier [Maine], Oct. 20, 1860. [Maine], Oct. 20, 1860.52. Boston Evening Transcript, Boston Post, Boston Evening Traveler; Boston Evening Transcript, Boston Post, Boston Evening Traveler; all Oct. 17, 1860. all Oct. 17, 1860.53. The Liberator, The Liberator, Oct. 19, 1860; Mayer, Oct. 19, 1860; Mayer, All on Fire, All on Fire, p. 513. p. 513.54. Walter C. Clephane, "The Local Aspect of Slavery in the District of Columbia," Walter C. Clephane, "The Local Aspect of Slavery in the District of Columbia," Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Records of the Columbia Historical Society, vol. 3 (1900), pp. 25354. vol. 3 (1900), pp. 25354.55. Burlingame, Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln, vol. 1, pp. 67677; Harold Holzer, vol. 1, pp. 67677; Harold Holzer, Lincoln President-Elect: Abraham Lincoln and the Great Secession Winter 18601861 Lincoln President-Elect: Abraham Lincoln and the Great Secession Winter 18601861 (New York, 2008), pp. 2231. (New York, 2008), pp. 2231.56. James M. McPherson, James M. McPherson, The Struggle for Equality: Abolitionists and the Negro in Civil War and Reconstruction The Struggle for Equality: Abolitionists and the Negro in Civil War and Reconstruction (Princeton, 1964), p. 223. Blacks could also vote in New York if they owned $250 in property. (Princeton, 1964), p. 223. Blacks could also vote in New York if they owned $250 in property.57. Boston Evening Transcript, Boston Post, Boston Evening Traveler, Boston Daily Advertiser; Boston Evening Transcript, Boston Post, Boston Evening Traveler, Boston Daily Advertiser; all Nov. 7, 1860. all Nov. 7, 1860.

Chapter Two: The Old Gentlemen.

1. 1. Mary Beth Corrigan, "Imaginary Cruelties? A History of the Slave Trade in Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.," Mary Beth Corrigan, "Imaginary Cruelties? A History of the Slave Trade in Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.," Was.h.i.+ngton History, Was.h.i.+ngton History, vol. 13, no. 2 (Fall/Winter, 20012), p. 6. vol. 13, no. 2 (Fall/Winter, 20012), p. 6.2. Daily National Intelligencer, Daily National Intelligencer, Jan. 11, 1861. The description of Green & Williams's auction house is based on contemporary newspaper advertis.e.m.e.nts. Jan. 11, 1861. The description of Green & Williams's auction house is based on contemporary newspaper advertis.e.m.e.nts.3. My account of George Mortimer Bibb (17761859) is drawn from the following: My account of George Mortimer Bibb (17761859) is drawn from the following: DAB, DAB, vol. I, p. 235; John S. Goff, "The Last Leaf: George Mortimer Bibb," vol. I, p. 235; John S. Goff, "The Last Leaf: George Mortimer Bibb," The Register of the Kentucky Historical Society, The Register of the Kentucky Historical Society, vol. 59, no. 4 (Autumn 1959), pp. 33142; vol. 59, no. 4 (Autumn 1959), pp. 33142; Biographical Encyclopaedia of Kentucky Biographical Encyclopaedia of Kentucky (Cincinnati, 1878), p. 394; John E. Kleber, ed., (Cincinnati, 1878), p. 394; John E. Kleber, ed., The Kentucky Encyclopedia The Kentucky Encyclopedia (Lexington, Ky., 1992), p. 75; (Lexington, Ky., 1992), p. 75; The Const.i.tution The Const.i.tution [Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.], Apr. 15 and 28, 1859; [Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.], Apr. 15 and 28, 1859; Charleston Mercury, Charleston Mercury, Apr. 19, 1859; Apr. 19, 1859; New-York Tribune, New-York Tribune, Apr. 28, 1859; Apr. 28, 1859; Baltimore Sun, Baltimore Sun, Apr. 19, 1859; Apr. 19, 1859; Daily Confederation Daily Confederation [Montgomery, Ala.], Apr. 20, 1859. Judge Bibb's house, 1404 Thirty-fifth Street, N.W. (formerly 55 Fayette Street), still stands in Was.h.i.+ngton. [Montgomery, Ala.], Apr. 20, 1859. Judge Bibb's house, 1404 Thirty-fifth Street, N.W. (formerly 55 Fayette Street), still stands in Was.h.i.+ngton.4. Register of Debates in Congress, Register of Debates in Congress, 22nd Congress, 2nd Session, pp. 264312; 22nd Congress, 2nd Session, pp. 264312; Georgia Telegraph, Georgia Telegraph, Feb. 13, 1833. Feb. 13, 1833.5. My description of Willis is in part conjectural, based on the Green & Williams newspaper advertis.e.m.e.nt and on information about Judge Bibb's own life and habits. The ad describes Willis as thirty-three years old, the late judge's "body servant" and "a good cook and dining room servant, etc." The duties I describe were those typical of an antebellum body servant, especially in an urban setting where the family kept only a few slaves. (The U.S. Census Slave Schedules for 1850 recorded Bibb as owning three slaves in Was.h.i.+ngton: a twenty-four-year-old woman, a twenty-four-year-old man, and a twenty-three-year-old man. Based on the ages, it is quite possible that one of the two men was Willis.) Bibb's final illness was pneumonia; President Buchanan and cabinet members did attend the funeral at his house on the afternoon of April 17, 1859. My description of Willis is in part conjectural, based on the Green & Williams newspaper advertis.e.m.e.nt and on information about Judge Bibb's own life and habits. The ad describes Willis as thirty-three years old, the late judge's "body servant" and "a good cook and dining room servant, etc." The duties I describe were those typical of an antebellum body servant, especially in an urban setting where the family kept only a few slaves. (The U.S. Census Slave Schedules for 1850 recorded Bibb as owning three slaves in Was.h.i.+ngton: a twenty-four-year-old woman, a twenty-four-year-old man, and a twenty-three-year-old man. Based on the ages, it is quite possible that one of the two men was Willis.) Bibb's final illness was pneumonia; President Buchanan and cabinet members did attend the funeral at his house on the afternoon of April 17, 1859.6. George M. Bibb to John B. Bibb, Feb. 24, 1839, quoted in Goff, "The Last Leaf," p. 342. George M. Bibb to John B. Bibb, Feb. 24, 1839, quoted in Goff, "The Last Leaf," p. 342.7. An English visitor in the 1850s, Laurence Oliphant, sniffed that the capital was "a howling wilderness of deserted streets running out into the country and ending nowhere, its population consisting chiefly of politicians and negroes." Alice Oliphant, An English visitor in the 1850s, Laurence Oliphant, sniffed that the capital was "a howling wilderness of deserted streets running out into the country and ending nowhere, its population consisting chiefly of politicians and negroes." Alice Oliphant, Memoir of the Life of Laurence Oliphant and of Alice Oliphant, Memoir of the Life of Laurence Oliphant and of Alice Oliphant, His Wife His Wife (1892), vol. 1, p. 109, quoted in Mrs. Roger Pryor, (1892), vol. 1, p. 109, quoted in Mrs. Roger Pryor, Reminiscences of Peace and War Reminiscences of Peace and War (New York, 1908), p. 3. (New York, 1908), p. 3.8. Josephine F. Pacheco, Josephine F. Pacheco, The Pearl: A Failed Slave Rescue Attempt on the Potomac The Pearl: A Failed Slave Rescue Attempt on the Potomac (Chapel Hill, 2005), pp. 1518, 23; Frederick Law Olmsted, (Chapel Hill, 2005), pp. 1518, 23; Frederick Law Olmsted, A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States, with Remarks on Their Economy A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States, with Remarks on Their Economy (London, 1856), pp. 1213; Felicia Bell, "'The Negroes Alone Work': Enslaved Craftsmen, the Building Trades, and the Construction of the United States Capitol, 17901800" (PhD dissertation, Howard University, 2009), p. 235; Margaret Leech, (London, 1856), pp. 1213; Felicia Bell, "'The Negroes Alone Work': Enslaved Craftsmen, the Building Trades, and the Construction of the United States Capitol, 17901800" (PhD dissertation, Howard University, 2009), p. 235; Margaret Leech, Reveille in Was.h.i.+ngton 18601865 Reveille in Was.h.i.+ngton 18601865 (New York, 1941), p. 10; William H. Russell, (New York, 1941), p. 10; William H. Russell, My Diary North and South My Diary North and South (London, 1863), vol. 1, pp. 32, 50; Randall M. Miller and John David Smith, eds., (London, 1863), vol. 1, pp. 32, 50; Randall M. Miller and John David Smith, eds., Dictionary of Afro-American Slavery, Dictionary of Afro-American Slavery, 2nd ed., (Westport, Conn., 1997), p. 192; 2nd ed., (Westport, Conn., 1997), p. 192; Daily National Intelligencer, Daily National Intelligencer, Aug. 29, 1849; June 21, 1850; July 8, 1852. Aug. 29, 1849; June 21, 1850; July 8, 1852.9. Pacheco, Pacheco, The Pearl, The Pearl, p. 20. p. 20.10. Ten of the first fifteen U.S. presidents were or had been slaveholders: Was.h.i.+ngton, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, Jackson, Van Buren, Harrison, Tyler, Polk, and Taylor. However, Was.h.i.+ngton never lived in Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C., and Van Buren and Harrison both freed their slaves long before taking office. Ten of the first fifteen U.S. presidents were or had been slaveholders: Was.h.i.+ngton, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, Jackson, Van Buren, Harrison, Tyler, Polk, and Taylor. However, Was.h.i.+ngton never lived in Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C., and Van Buren and Harrison both freed their slaves long before taking office.11. Constance McLaughlin Green, Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation's Capital The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation's Capital (Princeton, 1967), pp. 4142; Pacheco, (Princeton, 1967), pp. 4142; Pacheco, The Pearl, The Pearl, pp. 1824. In fact, Shadd's predecessor at the restaurant, a free black man named Beverly Snow, did spark a riot in 1835 when rumors spread that he had made disrespectful remarks about white women. A mob destroyed the restaurant and almost lynched him; Snow sold the business to Shadd and moved to Canada. pp. 1824. In fact, Shadd's predecessor at the restaurant, a free black man named Beverly Snow, did spark a riot in 1835 when rumors spread that he had made disrespectful remarks about white women. A mob destroyed the restaurant and almost lynched him; Snow sold the business to Shadd and moved to Canada.12. Russell, Russell, My Diary, My Diary, vol. 1, p. 46. vol. 1, p. 46.13. Daily National Intelligencer, Daily National Intelligencer, June 21, 1858. June 21, 1858.14. Description based on Josephine Cobb, "Mathew B. Brady's Photographic Gallery in Was.h.i.+ngton," Description based on Josephine Cobb, "Mathew B. Brady's Photographic Gallery in Was.h.i.+ngton," Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Records of the Columbia Historical Society, vols. 53/56 (1953/56), pp. 2869. vols. 53/56 (1953/56), pp. 2869.15. Leech, Leech, Reveille, Reveille, p. 19; p. 19; Speech of Mr. Clement C. Clay, Jr., of Alabama, on the Contest in Kansas and the Plan and Purpose of Black Republicanism: Delivered in the Senate of the United States on Monday, 21st April, 1856 Speech of Mr. Clement C. Clay, Jr., of Alabama, on the Contest in Kansas and the Plan and Purpose of Black Republicanism: Delivered in the Senate of the United States on Monday, 21st April, 1856 (Was.h.i.+ngton, 1856). "The time may not be remote," Clay prophesied, "when one of [Ma.s.sachusetts's] senators may offer to introduce at one of the levees of the President his sable spouse." (Was.h.i.+ngton, 1856). "The time may not be remote," Clay prophesied, "when one of [Ma.s.sachusetts's] senators may offer to introduce at one of the levees of the President his sable spouse."16. Wilmer Carlyle Harris, Wilmer Carlyle Harris, Public Life of Zachariah Chandler, 18511875 Public Life of Zachariah Chandler, 18511875 (Chicago, 1917), p. 77. (Chicago, 1917), p. 77.17. Allan Nevins, Allan Nevins, The Ordeal of the Union, The Ordeal of the Union, vol. 2: vol. 2: A House Dividing, 18521857, A House Dividing, 18521857, part I (New York, 1947), pp. 92, 96. part I (New York, 1947), pp. 92, 96.18. James M. McPherson, "The Civil War and the Transformation of America," in William J. Cooper and John M. McCardell, eds., James M. McPherson, "The Civil War and the Transformation of America," in William J. Cooper and John M. McCardell, eds., In the Cause of Liberty: How the Civil War Redefined American Ideals In the Cause of Liberty: How the Civil War Redefined American Ideals (Baton Rouge, 2009), p.5. (Baton Rouge, 2009), p.5.19. See, e.g., Claudia Dale Goldin, "The Economics of Emanc.i.p.ation," See, e.g., Claudia Dale Goldin, "The Economics of Emanc.i.p.ation," The Journal of Economic History, The Journal of Economic History, vol. 33, no. 1 (Mar. 1973), pp. 6685. Goldin, in her much-cited study, calculates the total value of slaves in 1860 at $2.7 billion. Lincoln, like almost all antislavery politicians, believed strongly before the war (and even, to a diminis.h.i.+ng degree, during it) that any emanc.i.p.ation plan must fully compensate slaveholders. Furthermore, he and many other white Americans believed that any such plan ought to provide for the newly emanc.i.p.ated slaves' resettlement in Africa, which would have added (by Goldin's calculations) almost another $400 million to the total cost. Goldin suggests that the ultimate direct and indirect economic costs of the Civil War (let alone its human toll) were higher than compensated emanc.i.p.ation's would have been. This was, of course, impossible to predict in 186061. For Lincoln's estimate, see William Lee Miller, vol. 33, no. 1 (Mar. 1973), pp. 6685. Goldin, in her much-cited study, calculates the total value of slaves in 1860 at $2.7 billion. Lincoln, like almost all antislavery politicians, believed strongly before the war (and even, to a diminis.h.i.+ng degree, during it) that any emanc.i.p.ation plan must fully compensate slaveholders. Furthermore, he and many other white Americans believed that any such plan ought to provide for the newly emanc.i.p.ated slaves' resettlement in Africa, which would have added (by Goldin's calculations) almost another $400 million to the total cost. Goldin suggests that the ultimate direct and indirect economic costs of the Civil War (let alone its human toll) were higher than compensated emanc.i.p.ation's would have been. This was, of course, impossible to predict in 186061. For Lincoln's estimate, see William Lee Miller, Arguing About Slavery: The Great Battle in the United States Congress Arguing About Slavery: The Great Battle in the United States Congress (New York, 1996), p. 10. See also David Brion Davis, "The Central Fact of American History," (New York, 1996), p. 10. See also David Brion Davis, "The Central Fact of American History," American Heritage, American Heritage, vol. 56, no. 1 (Feb./Mar. 2005). Davis notes that a single prime fieldhand in 1860 "would sell for the equivalent of a Mercedes-Benz today." vol. 56, no. 1 (Feb./Mar. 2005). Davis notes that a single prime fieldhand in 1860 "would sell for the equivalent of a Mercedes-Benz today."20. George Fitzhugh, George Fitzhugh, Sociology for the South; Or, the Failure of Free Society Sociology for the South; Or, the Failure of Free Society (Richmond, 1854), p. 255; Fitzhugh, "Southern Thought," (Richmond, 1854), p. 255; Fitzhugh, "Southern Thought," DeBow's Review, DeBow's Review, vol. 23 (1857), reprinted in Drew Gilpin Faust, ed., vol. 23 (1857), reprinted in Drew Gilpin Faust, ed., The Ideology of Slavery: Proslavery Thought in the Antebellum South, 1830 to 1860 The Ideology of Slavery: Proslavery Thought in the Antebellum South, 1830 to 1860 (Baton Rouge, 1981), p. 279. (Baton Rouge, 1981), p. 279.21. R. K. Call to J. S. Littell, Feb. 12, 1861, in Frank Moore, ed., R. K. Call to J. S. Littell, Feb. 12, 1861, in Frank Moore, ed., The Rebellion Record; A Diary of American Events The Rebellion Record; A Diary of American Events (New York, 1864), vol. 1, pp. 41620. (New York, 1864), vol. 1, pp. 41620.22. Mrs. Chapman Coleman, Mrs. Chapman Coleman, The Life of John J. Crittenden, with Selections from His Correspondence and Speeches The Life of John J. Crittenden, with Selections from His Correspondence and Speeches (Philadelphia, 1871), vol. 2, pp. 36263; Albert D. Kirwan, (Philadelphia, 1871), vol. 2, pp. 36263; Albert D. Kirwan, John J. Crittenden: The Struggle for the Union John J. Crittenden: The Struggle for the Union (Lexington, Ky., 1962), pp. 15, 42, 102, 32223; Glyndon G. Van Deusen, (Lexington, Ky., 1962), pp. 15, 42, 102, 32223; Glyndon G. Van Deusen, William Henry Seward William Henry Seward (New York, 1967), p. 265. See also (New York, 1967), p. 265. See also New Hamps.h.i.+re Sentinel, New Hamps.h.i.+re Sentinel, July 8, 1847; "Death of the Hon. J. J. Crittenden," July 8, 1847; "Death of the Hon. J. J. Crittenden," Proceedings of the Ma.s.sachusetts Historical Society, Proceedings of the Ma.s.sachusetts Historical Society, vol. 7 (1863), pp. 1